Forms and operations of thinking. Types of mental operations Thinking operations in psychology with examples

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Mental operations.

In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished (see Fig. 11): analysis, comparison, abstraction, synthesis, concretization, generalization, classification and categorization. With the help of these thinking operations, one penetrates into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, examines the properties of the elements that make up this problem, and finds a solution to the problem.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis - this is the selection of certain aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc. in an object; This is the division of a cognizable object into various components. For example, a schoolchild in a class for a circle of young technicians, trying to understand the method of operation of a mechanism or machine, first of all identifies various elements, parts of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So in the simplest case, he analyzes and dismembers the cognizable object.

With the help of analysis, the most significant signs are revealed. During the analysis of any object, its properties that are the most important, significant, significant, interesting, turn out to be especially strong irritants and therefore come to the fore. Such stimuli cause an active process of excitation (primarily in the cerebral cortex) and, according to the physiological law of induction, inhibit the differentiation of other properties of the same object, which are weak stimuli. Thus, the physiological basis of the mental process of analysis will be a certain ratio of excitation and inhibition in the higher parts of the brain.

Rice. 11. Mental operations

Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Unlike analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually appear in unity. They are inseparable and cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected.

The inextricable unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such a cognitive process as comparison. Comparison is a mental operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process from which cognition, as a rule, begins. At the initial stages of acquaintance with the world around us, various objects are learned primarily through comparison. Any comparison of two or more objects begins with a comparison or correlation of them with each other, i.e. begins with synthesis. During this synthetic act, an analysis of the compared phenomena, objects, events, etc. occurs. - highlighting what is common and what is different. For example, a child compares different representatives of the class of mammals with each other and, with the help of the teacher, gradually identifies the most common characteristics of these animals. Thus comparison leads to generalization.

Generalization- this is a mental operation consisting of combining many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic. In the course of generalization, something common stands out in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis. These properties common to different objects are of two types: 1) common as similar features and 2) common as essential features.

For example, you can find something similar between the most dissimilar objects; in particular, you can combine cherry, peony, blood, raw meat, boiled crayfish, etc. into one group, into one class of color commonality. However, this similarity (commonality) between them does not in any way express the truly essential properties of the listed objects. In this case, the similarity is based on their purely external, only very superficial, insignificant characteristics. Generalizations that are made as a result of such a superficial, shallow analysis of objects are of little value and, moreover, constantly lead to errors. A generalization based on a superficial analysis of purely external properties, for example, of a whale, leads to the deeply erroneous conclusion that a whale is not a mammal, but a fish. In this case, a comparison of these objects identifies among their common features only similar but insignificant ones (appearance, fish-like body shape). And vice versa, when, as a result of the analysis, general properties are isolated as essential, it becomes clear that the whale does not belong to fish, but to mammals. Consequently, every essential property is at the same time common to a given group of homogeneous objects, but not vice versa: not every common (similar) property is essential to a given group of objects. Common essential features are identified during and as a result of in-depth analysis and synthesis.

By finding similar, identical or common properties and characteristics of things, the subject discovers the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar features are then abstracted (allocated, separated) from a set of other properties and designated by a word, then they become the content of a person’s corresponding ideas about a certain set of objects or phenomena. Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them. Abstraction- an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from unimportant aspects, properties of objects and relationships between them in order to identify essential features.

Isolating (abstracting) the general properties of different levels allows a person to establish generic relations in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby build a certain classification. ClassificationCategorization– the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. – systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish connections between these concepts or classes of objects. It is necessary to distinguish classification from categorization.

Specification- this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific. One of the tasks of theoretical thinking is to determine a way to derive particular manifestations of a system object from its general (essential) basis, from a certain initial relationship in the system. Mental tracing of the process of transformation of the initial relationship in an object into its diverse concrete manifestations is carried out by the method of “ascending from the abstract to the concrete.”

The laws of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the main internal, specific laws of thinking. Only on their basis can all external manifestations of mental activity be explained.

Penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, consideration of the properties of the elements that make up this problem, and finding a solution to the problem is carried out by a person with the help of mental operations. In psychology, the following thinking operations are distinguished:

1. comparison;

   abstraction;

2. generalization;

   classification and;

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis is the selection of certain aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc. in an object; This is the division of a cognizable object into various components. For example, a schoolchild in a class for a circle of young technicians, trying to understand the method of operation of a mechanism or machine, first of all, identifies various elements, parts of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So - in the simplest case, he analyzes and dismembers the cognizable object. Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Unlike analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually appear in unity. They are inseparable and cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected. The inextricable unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such a cognitive process as comparison.

Comparison - this is an operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process from which cognition, as a rule, begins. Ultimately, comparison leads to generalization. Generalization - this is the unification of many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic. In the course of generalization, something common stands out in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis. These are common to various objects There are two types of properties:

common as similar features and;

common as essential features.

By finding similar, identical or common properties and characteristics of things, the subject discovers the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar features are then abstracted (allocated, separated) from a set of other properties and designated by a word, then they become the content of a person’s corresponding ideas about a certain set of objects or phenomena.

Abstraction - a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.

Abstraction - an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from unimportant aspects, properties of objects and relationships between them in order to identify essential features. Isolation (abstraction) of common properties of different levels allows a person to establish generic-species relationships in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby construct a certain classification. Classification - systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish connections between these concepts or classes of objects. It is necessary to distinguish classification from categorization.

Categorization - the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. The laws of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the main internal, specific laws of thinking. Only on their basis can all external manifestations of mental activity be explained.

Issues to discuss :

1. The essence of thinking as a process of problem solving.

3. The main types of mental actions characteristic of the process of solving problems and their content. 4. Basic operations of thinking and their essence.

Thinking as a process occurs in the form of operations or mental actions with mental content, which presents information about various events, both real and imaginary. Such operations are analysis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, synthesis and specification. In the real process of thinking, these operations are interdependent and inseparable.

Analysis(from the Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment) - mental or physical dissection of an object, situation, phenomenon into its component parts for the purpose of further study of the latter. Thus, analysis of the general impression of the disease makes it possible to find out that it manifests itself with certain symptoms and syndromes, occurs for one reason or another and under certain conditions, that it occurs according to different scenarios, contains a known threat to the patient’s ability to work, his health, life, etc. When perceiving speech, an individual first identifies its sounds, otherwise he would be completely unable to understand what the people around him are talking about. The analytical mind is often able to discern such fine details of what is being studied that, in terms of resolution, it can be compared with an electron microscope.

Comparison- comparison of impressions about different objects or phenomena in order to identify signs of similarities and differences between them. Thus, comparing patients even with the same disease and identical diagnosis allows us to establish that they are not only the same in some ways, but that there are also many differences between them. If we take into account only the latter, then the well-known point of view becomes clear, according to which “there are no diseases, but only sick people.”

Antinosologism, generally speaking, is based on the absolutization of differences and the ignoring of signs of identity. Comparing people with the same character shows that in all other respects they can be completely different people. Absolutization of similarity traits in this case may entail ignoring individuality. The primacy of characterology is the triumph of depersonalization. The same thing in the context of individuality sometimes takes on the opposite meaning. Everything is known by comparison - this idea is true to the extent that certain absolute indicators by themselves mean nothing.

Generalization- identification of signs that are identical for different objects and phenomena. Based on such characteristics, homogeneous groups of objects can be compiled. In this way, classifications of certain phenomena, events, objects are created: “plants”, “planets”, “patients”, “criminals”, etc. The name of a particular class of objects is a general term for it. Generalization is also the process of forming a judgment or decision that is equally applicable to the entire category of relevant objects or situations. A generalization in science is any broad statement that is valid for many single observations. Whether generalizing features are identified correctly or incorrectly depends on how constructively the abstraction operation is performed.

Abstraction(from Latin abstrahere - distract) - highlighting the properties of objects or phenomena that are significant in one way or another. An emergency doctor, for example, first of all identifies signs of illness that indicate a threat to the patient’s life, and is distracted from other, secondary ones; The forensic psychiatrist needs to focus on symptoms that indicate the insanity or incapacity of the subject; he pays less attention to other mental disorders. In science, abstraction allows an individual to focus attention on what has not been sufficiently studied, is unknown, or has not been noticed by other researchers; This ability to see gaps in knowledge is quite rare, it is characteristic exclusively of gifted people.

Abstraction in a broad sense is a distraction from the visual, material properties of objects and phenomena. Abstraction is already represented in sensory cognition: perceiving one object, the individual is, as it were, distracted from all others. Abstraction, for all its extreme importance, always conceals the danger of separation from reality and the risk of generating empty, speculative constructions, which, in logical terms, may be impeccable, and therefore seem convincing. Logical, but incorrect - this situation is not at all rare. In an instructive story, medieval scholastics argued for a long time and fruitlessly about whether a mole has eyes, believing that the truth can be known through abstract reasoning, bypassing experience. Truth is always concrete, there is only one way to know it - this is an appeal to reality, practice.

Synthesis(from the Greek synthesis - connection, combination, composition) - the unification of different aspects of knowledge about an object or phenomenon into an integral structure, knowledge of the whole in unity and the mutual connection of its parts. Hegel believes that synthesis characterizes the highest level of knowledge, since it reunites even the most contradictory knowledge and opinions. Freedom of thought is the right to one’s own point of view, everyone’s right to their own truth, synthesis is a necessity, and for many, an obligation to seek the one and only truth. Synthesis in everyday thinking is carried out through the use by an individual of previously acquired cognitive schemes - standard or habitual ways of combining heterogeneous impressions. J. Piaget defines this process with the term assimilation - the inclusion of a new object or new situation in a set of objects or in another situation for which a scheme already exists. A child, for example, who already has a schema for perceiving birds, seeing an airplane for the first time, will mistake it for a bird and will think so until he has a cognitive schema for perceiving aircraft.

But, as Mephistopheles quipped, what is known is of no use, only the unknown is needed. The search for new theories or cognitive frameworks is a creative, albeit error-prone, process. Misconceptions are usually based on the fact that impressions of reality are connected through inadequate cognitive structures. The process of forming new cognitive structures and disactualizing outdated ones is difficult to consciously control, which is why misconceptions and prejudices are extremely persistent. This very process of expanding knowledge is, in the terminology of J. Piaget, accommodation, that is, modification of old mental schemes in order to master new objects and situations. The inability to create new, more adequate cognitive schemes and the dominance of old ones that are not suitable for changing circumstances is one of the signs of advancing dementia. Confucius once noted on the same occasion that learning without reflection is useless, reflection without knowledge is dangerous.

The collapse of cognitive structures in illness entails tragic consequences in the form of dementia. Thus, with Korsakoff's syndrome, the patient, receiving all the necessary current and retaining memory of past impressions, completely loses the ability to combine them into a holistic understanding of what is happening. Every time he is forced to create the world and himself, as it were, anew and unsuccessfully. Having adequate cognitive schemes, an individual is able to form a more or less accurate picture of what is perceived, even from individual, incomplete and scattered impressions. Knowing, for example, that a certain individual is hardworking, it is possible, without breaking away from the truth of life, to supplement his appearance with such qualities as honesty, responsibility, competence, and commitment. But what is important here is what exactly is meant by hard work, that is, whether the abstraction operation was performed correctly.

Specification(from lat. concretus - thick, condensed, compacted) - consideration of an object in all the diversity of its connections and relationships. This operation is the opposite of abstraction both formally and in essence, namely in the sense that from theoretical knowledge in the course of concretization the individual is able to move on to practical knowledge, he gets the opportunity to solve pressing problems in the real world. “Theory, my friend, is dry, but the tree of life is green,” Mephistopheles definitely and quite rightly says about the uselessness of abstract knowledge alone. One can have encyclopedic erudition and at the same time remain completely helpless in everyday life, that is, know much more than one can understand and be able to do. You can, of course, speculate in such a situation, but, alas, such reasoning will very much resemble reasoning emasculated from everything concrete.

Thus, a leading specialist in psychological problems and the author of a number of theoretical works admits that he does not understand the behavioral problems of his own child and does not know how to overcome them. It is unlikely that such works can be applied with great benefit in practice. Thanks to concretization, abstract knowledge makes it possible to realize a new meaning of already known facts, to see facts that were not previously noticed, or even to understand where or how they could be discovered. Problems in this regard are, apparently, common to a considerable number of people, especially those who think according to the proverb “I will solve someone else’s misfortune with my hands.” The ability to concretize is an extremely important characteristic of the mind. If it is not developed or it simply does not exist, any serious education simply has no meaning or can even play an evil role. If a legislator, for example, cannot imagine the specific consequences of the law he is promoting, then this threatens with negative consequences for himself.

In the process of mental activity, a person learns about the world around him with the help of special mental operations. These operations constitute various interconnected aspects of thinking that transform into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization and generalization.

Analysis- this is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions and relationships from the whole. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts.

Synthesis- this is the mental unification of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relationship of individual objects or parts to their complex whole is established. Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. What is analyzed is what includes something common, a whole. Synthesis also presupposes analysis: in order to combine some parts or elements into a single whole, these parts and characteristics must be obtained as a result of analysis.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual characteristics. In practice, comparison is observed when applying one object to another, for example, one pencil to another.

Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object being studied, is distracted from the rest. In this process, a feature separated from an object is thought independently of other features of the object and becomes an independent subject of thought. Abstraction is usually done during the analysis process. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, and value were created.

Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is turned to in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, then, in essence, the request is to specify the previous statements.

Generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features, for example, identifying similar features found in apples, pears, etc. The simplest generalizations involve combining objects based on individual, random features. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined on different grounds.

All of these operations cannot occur in isolation, without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex thinking operations arise.

In addition to operations, there are also thinking processes: 1) judgment– is a statement containing a certain thought; 2) inference– is a series of logically related statements from which new knowledge is derived; 3) definition of concepts is considered as a system of judgments about a certain class of objects (phenomena), highlighting the most general characteristics; 4) induction and deduction- these are ways of producing inferences that reflect the direction of thought. Induction involves the derivation of a particular judgment from a general one, and deduction presupposes the derivation of a general judgment from a particular one.

Concept of thinking. Types of thinking and the possibilities of their classification.

Response plan

Concept of thinking.

1. Understanding thinking.

Types of thinking.

Classification capabilities.

Answer:

Concept of thinking.

1. Understanding thinking.

Thinking, unlike other processes, occurs in accordance with a certain logic.

Thinking– the mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of stable regular properties and relationships of reality, carried out to solve cognitive problems, systematic orientation in specific situations. Mental activity is a system of mental actions and operations for solving a specific problem.

There are different psychological theories of thinking. According to associationism, thinking itself is not a special process and comes down to a simple combination of memory images (associations by contiguity, similarity, contrast). Representatives of the Wurzburg school considered thinking to be a special type of mental process and separated it from the sensory basis and speech. According to psychology, thinking occurs in a closed sphere of consciousness. As a result, thinking was reduced to the movement of thoughts in closed structures of consciousness. Materialistic psychology approached the consideration of thinking as a process that is formed in social conditions of life, acquiring the character of internal “mental” actions.

Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. Allows you to obtain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling certain mental functions.

Problematic nature of thinking. Phases of the thought process.

Thinking is active and problematic. It is aimed at solving problems. The following phases of the thought process are distinguished:

Awareness of a problem situation - there is an awareness of the presence of information about the deficit.

You should not think that this is the beginning of thinking, because awareness of a problem situation already includes a preliminary thought process.

Awareness of the emerging solution as a hypothesis includes a search for solution options.

Hypothesis testing phase - the mind carefully weighs the pros and cons of its hypotheses and subjects them to comprehensive testing.

Solving a problem is getting an answer to a question or solving a problem. The decision is recorded in the judgment on the issue.

Mental operations. Forms of thinking.

1. Analysis - decomposition of the whole into parts or properties (shape, color, etc.)

2. Synthesis - mental combination of parts or properties into a single whole

3. Comparison - comparing objects and phenomena, finding similarities and differences

4. Generalization – mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common essential features

5. Abstraction – highlighting some features and distracting from others.

These operations are not just various side-by-side and independent variants of mental actions, but there are coordination relations between them, since they are particular, specific forms of the basic, generic mental operation of mediation. Moreover, voluntary regulation of thinking creates the possibility of reversibility of operations: dismemberment and connection (analysis and synthesis), establishing similarities and identifying differences (or comparison: if A>B, then B

Concept and scientific knowledge. Our thinking will be the more accurate the more precise and indisputable concepts we connect. A concept arises from an ordinary idea through clarification; it is the result of a thinking process, with the help of which both a child and an adult discover the relationships between objects and events.

Forms – judgment, inference, concept, analogy.

Generalization and mediation of thought.

Thinking, as the highest form of human cognitive activity, allows us to reflect the surrounding reality, generalize and establish connections and deviations between objects and phenomena. The generality of thought is represented by the isolation of general relations through the operation of comparison. Thinking is the movement of thought, revealing a connection that leads from the individual (particular) to the general. Generalization is facilitated by the fact that thinking is symbolic in nature and is expressed in words. The word makes human thinking indirect. Thinking is mediated by action.

Types of thinking.

Abstract thinking – thinking using concepts that accompany symbolization. Logical thinking – a type of thought process in which logical structures and ready-made concepts are used. Respectively, abstract – logical thinking is a special type of thought process that involves the use of symbolic concepts and logical constructs.

Divergent thinking - a special type of thinking that assumes that there can be many equally correct and equal answers to the same question. Convergent thinking - a type of thinking that assumes that there is only one correct solution to a problem. (can be synonymous with "conservative" and "rigid" thinking)

Visual – actionable thinking - a special type of thought process, the essence of which lies in practical transformative activity carried out with real objects. Visual – imaginative thinking - a special type of thought process, the essence of which lies in practical transformative activity carried out with images. Associated with the presentation of situations and changes in them. Creative thinking – this is thinking in which images are used. (Imaginative logic plays a leading role)

Practical thinking - a type of thought process that is aimed at transforming the surrounding reality based on setting goals, developing plans, as well as perceiving and manipulating real objects.

Theoretical thinking – one of the types of thinking that is aimed at discovering laws and properties of objects. Theoretical thinking is not only the operation of theoretical concepts, but also the mental path that allows you to resort to these operations in a specific situation. An example of theoretical thinking is fundamental scientific research.

Creative thinking - one of the types of thinking, characterized by the creation of a subjectively new product and new formations in the course of the cognitive activity of its creation. These new formations relate to motivation, goals, evaluations and meanings. Creative thinking differs from the processes of applying ready-made knowledge and skills, called thinking reproductive .

Critical thinking – represents a test of proposed solutions in order to determine the scope of their possible application.

Prelogical thinking - a concept introduced by L. Levy-Bruhl to designate the early stage of the development of thinking, when the formation of its basic logical laws has not yet been completed - the existence of cause-and-effect relationships is already realized, but their essence appears in a mystified form. Phenomena are correlated on the basis of cause and effect even when they simply coincide in time. Participation (involvement) of events adjacent in time and space serves as the basis for explaining most events occurring in the world. At the same time, man appears to be closely connected with nature, especially with the animal world.

In prelogical thinking, natural and social situations are perceived as processes occurring under the auspices and counteraction of invisible forces - a magical worldview. Lévy-Bruhl did not associate prelogical thinking exclusively with the early stages of the formation of society, admitting that its elements manifest themselves in everyday consciousness in later periods (everyday superstitions, jealousy, fear, arising on the basis of partiality, and not logical thinking)

Verbally – logical thinking – one of the types of thinking using concepts and logical constructions. It functions on the basis of linguistic means and represents the latest stage in the historical and ontogenetic development of thinking. Various types of generalizations are formed and function in its structure.

Spatial thinking – a set of mental sequential operational spatial transformations and simultaneous figurative vision of an object in all the diversity and variability of its properties, constant recoding of these different mental plans.

Intuitive Thinking – one of the types of thinking. Characteristic features: rapid progression, lack of clearly defined stages, little awareness.

Realistic and autistic thinking. The latter is associated with withdrawal from reality into internal experiences.

There is also involuntary and voluntary thinking.

Classification capabilities.

(L.L. Gurova) there is no accepted classification of types and forms of thinking that corresponds to the modern theory of thinking. Thus, it is incorrect to establish a dividing line between theoretical and practical thinking, figurative and conceptual, as is done in old psychology textbooks. Types of thinking should be distinguished by the content of the activity performed - the tasks solved in it, and forms of thinking that are differently related to the content - by the nature of the actions and operations performed, their language.

They can be distinguished this way:

according to form: visual-effective, visual-figurative – abstract-logical;

by the nature of the tasks being solved: theoretical – practical;

by degree of deployment: discursive – intuitive

by degree of novelty: reproductive – productive.