Counseling and psychotherapy. Psychological counseling and psychotherapy

General family psychotherapy is outlined in Chapter 3 of this handbook. This section discusses those aspects of therapy that are directly related to marital problems. We are talking here about marital counseling (therapy) or working with spouses (who cannot be classified as “sick”).

There is the following classification of psychotherapy and psychological counseling related to marriage (Menovshchikov, 2002):

Premarital counseling;

Marital counseling,

Divorce counseling;

Counseling for divorced people experiencing separation from their partner.

Premarital counseling is discussed in Chapter 5 of this handbook.

The goals of therapy for marital disorders are to alleviate emotional suffering and difficulties, achieve the well-being of the couple as a whole and each partner in particular. As a rule, a psychotherapist has a number of ways to solve these problems, namely:

Empowering us to overcome the problem together;

Encouraging the replacement of pathological defense and control mechanisms with more adequate ones;

Increasing resistance to the disintegrating effects of emotional disorder;

Improving complementarity of relations;

Support for the development of relationships and each partner individually.

The psychotherapist should stop the desire of the spouses to “slide” into mutual accusations and insults; his task is to give hope for building new, better relationships. The therapist's task is to overcome misunderstandings, confusion, and distortions in order to help partners develop a common opinion about the essence of the problem. By overcoming conflicts caused by disagreements, disappointment, grief, and lack of complementarity, the psychotherapist eliminates old patterns of behavior, thereby clearing the way for a qualitatively new interaction.

The therapist moves forward using the following techniques:

– counteracting inappropriate denial, displacement and rationalization of the conflict;

– transformation of hidden, implicit conflict into an open form of interaction;

– raising hidden internal conflict to the level of interpersonal interaction;

– getting rid of the need to create a “scapegoat”, which strengthens the position of one of the spouses by sacrificing the other;

– confrontation and interpretation, overcoming resistance and reducing conflict, guilt and anxiety;

– the therapist playing the role of a parent who controls interpersonal danger, serves as a source of emotional support and satisfaction, and provides missing emotional components (the latter function is a kind of replacement therapy, during which the therapist brings new attitudes, emotions and ideas about marriage and family relationships into the lives of the spouses Thus, the therapist improves the complementarity of the relationship);

– the psychotherapist’s use of himself as a “tool” for testing reality;

– the educational function of the therapist and his demonstration by personal example of useful models of “healthy” interaction between spouses.

Using all these techniques, the psychotherapist, together with the spouses, begins to search for alternative options for overcoming the problems that have arisen.

As in general in psychotherapy and counseling, there are a number of concepts, basic approaches to resolving marital problems (Kratochvil, 1999; Menovshchikov, 2002). Traditionally, the following approaches are distinguished:

1) psychoanalytic;

2) humanistic;

3) systemic;

4) behavioral.

In addition, marital problems are addressed within each of the schools discussed in Chapter 2.

Psychoanalytic approach. Here, marital disharmony is considered from the point of view of the internal motivation of the spouses’ behavior. Current family conflicts are associated with the past, with examples of behavior in past relationships (see Chapter 2).

Humanistic approach. It is based on the desire to change ideas about marriage. Communication between spouses should become open and sincere. The psychotherapist creates conditions in which spouses strive to verbalize their feelings and thereby improve mutual understanding. Feelings (including aggression) should be expressed, which should not lead to an escalation of the conflict. There are a number of rules for “fair combat” and the use of physical discharge.

The psychotherapist shows empathy, warmth and sincerity towards each of the partners. Spouses must learn to listen to each other without expressing evaluation or condemnation, to understand the partner, to feel his feelings. In a humanistic approach to marital problems, the main emphasis falls on openness, authenticity, tolerance, the need for self-expression, belonging to another and the independent development of each person's personality. The humanistic approach (Rogers, 1972; O'Neil, O'Neil, 1973) developed as a counterweight to both the dynamic approach, which is overly focused on the past and parental family of the partners, and the overly manipulative behavioral approach. Within the framework of the humanistic approach, the principles of an open marriage were formulated, creating the most favorable conditions for the personal growth of partners:

1) the principle of reality, “here and now”;

2) respect for the partner’s privacy;

4) mobility in the performance of family roles - the tendency to change roles regardless of tradition, whether they are considered male or female;

5) equality;

6) trust;

7) authenticity - know yourself, your worth and appreciate the right of others to live according to their ideas;

8) open partnership - everyone has the right to their own interests and hobbies.

Systems approach. Here the therapist’s attention comes to the interdependence of the behavior of marriage partners or all family members (see Chapter 2).

The behavioral direction in marital psychotherapy is currently the most common approach. The goal here is primarily to change the behavior of partners, using reinforcement and training methods. This approach allows:

1) manage the positive behavior of spouses;

2) provide the necessary social knowledge and skills, especially in the field of communication and joint problem solving;

3) develop an effective marital agreement on mutual behavior change.

Marital therapy or counseling begins with an exploration of the underlying issues, which is the goal of any pre-work interview (Ackerman, 2000). It is important to know what exactly the spouses want, what the environment expects, what each partner needs from the other spouse, other family members, and environment. It is also important to understand what each spouse is ready to do for the other, family, and environment. A variety of questionnaires can be used for research here.

Jacobson (1981) proposed the main lines of preliminary diagnostic examination of marital relationships.

The main lines of marital relations

A. Family Relationship Skills and Strengths

1. What are the strengths of the couple's relationship?

2. Does each spouse understand the other’s arguments? How convincing are they to him?

3. Is each spouse able to reward (“reinforce”) the other for good behavior?

4. What behavior does the spouse consider most valuable to the other spouse?

5. What common activities are spouses involved in?

6. What common interests do they have?

7. What are the skills and abilities of spouses in solving the main tasks of marriage:

– in problem solving;

– in providing support and understanding;

– the ability to give strong reinforcement;

– in sexual behavior;

– the ability to raise children;

– ability to manage finances;

- ability to manage a household;

- the ability to communicate outside the family.

B. Description of the problem

1. What are the chief complaints (in terms of observable, describable behavior)?

2. What problem behavior is most common in the spouse from the point of view of his partner?

3. Under what conditions does this behavior occur?

4. What reinforcers support problem behavior?

5. What behavior in which the other spouse is interested occurs too rarely or at inappropriate times - from the point of view of each partner?

6. Under what conditions would each spouse want this behavior to occur?

7. What are the consequences of this behavior and where do they occur?

8. What is the history of the current problem?

9. How is responsibility for decision making distributed?

10. Which decisions are made jointly and which separately?

B. Emotionality in the family and sex

1. Do spouses experience physical affection for each other?

2. Are they satisfied with the quality of their sex life at present?

3. If there are currently sexual problems, was there a time when the spouses were satisfied with their sexual relationship?

4. What does each spouse dislike most about sexual relationships?

5. Are they satisfied with the quantity and quality of non-sexual expressions of feelings and emotions?

6. Are one or both partners involved in extramarital sexual relations?

7. If so, does the other spouse know about it?

8. What is the history of the spouses in terms of extramarital affairs (has this happened before)?

D. Future prospects

1. Why did the partners turn to a psychotherapist: to improve the relationship, to break up, or to decide whether their union is worth maintaining?

2. What are the motives for continuing the marriage, despite the problems, of each spouse?

3. What steps did each spouse take to get a divorce?

D. Assessing the social environment

1. What are the alternatives to each spouse’s current relationship?

2. How attractive are these alternatives to each of them?

3. Is there anyone in the environment (parents, relatives, children, friends, colleagues) who supports the continuation or termination of their relationship?

4. Do children have psychological problems?

5. What are the likely consequences of the end of the marital relationship for the children?

E. Individual status of each spouse

1. Does either spouse have emotional or behavioral problems?

2. Does either spouse have a mental disorder? Has he had previous contacts with psychiatrists and for what reason?

3. Has either spouse undergone psychotherapy before, what kind and with what result?

4. What is each spouse's past sexual experience before marriage?

5. How do current intimate relationships differ from those in the past?

The psychotherapist asks himself these questions when creating a psychotherapy plan. Of course, he asks the same questions to spouses during interviews.

Regardless of how the problem is classified, the overall organization and tactics of the consultation are essential. From an organizational point of view, marital counseling (therapy) involves a series of visits to a consultant by one of the spouses or both partners (separately or together). If both spouses undergo counseling (psychotherapy), then five forms of organizing the reception are possible (Kratochvil, 1991):

1) sequential: first one spouse undergoes therapy, then the other;

2) parallel: both spouses are involved in counseling (psychotherapy) simultaneously, but in isolation from each other (usually from different specialists);

3) joint: both spouses undergo a course of counseling (therapy) together;

4) group therapy (training groups, group counseling): spouses undergo a course in a group consisting of several married couples;

5) combined: a combination of different forms.

Working with one of the spouses.

Psychotherapy focused on marital relationships and their disorders is limited to systematic work with one of the partners in two cases (Kratochvil, 1991):

– when the other partner categorically refuses to cooperate;

– when the main problem is related to the behavior, experiences or position of one of them.

1). Partner refuses to cooperate

A. The partner may not trust marital counseling or feel the burden of social stigma when visiting a therapist. There is an opinion that “no one cares” about the intimate details of a person’s life and spouses should sort out marital affairs themselves, without the interference of outsiders. People may be afraid that someone they know will see them at the consultation and everyone will know about it.

B. One spouse does not want his partner - the initiator of the appeal - to visit a therapist (considers this unnecessary).

B. The partner agrees that the other person, but not him, visits the consultant (psychotherapist). Perhaps he does not intend to change anything in the marital relationship. He can satisfy his needs in extramarital affairs or has already decided to end the marriage and therefore is not interested in cooperation (Kratochvil, 1991).

Thus, it most often happens that a spouse comes to a consultation alone, unwilling, and most often unable, to bring a partner with him. In such a situation, the consultant needs, first of all, to support the client, assuring him that working with one member of the couple is in no way meaningless or ineffective. Although it is necessary to motivate the client to work and his changes change the behavior of the partner, sometimes a miracle does not happen, the relationship does not improve, but remains the same, or even goes wrong completely. The latter, however, sometimes represents a positive phenomenon - the resolution of a “chronic” situation that cannot be resolved in other ways.

Let's briefly look at some common problems when working individually with a spouse. One of the common reasons for seeking counseling is wives’ complaints about their husbands’ passivity and lack of independence. Often a woman with such a complaint comes to a consultant alone, hiding the very fact of her complaint from her husband. The problem may concern both the spouse’s personality and unfulfilled expectations in the area of ​​the couple’s “internal” problems; the influence of relatives is also possible (for example, a wife simply conveys the opinion of her mother). During the consultation, more attention should be paid to analyzing the client’s real situation; it is also necessary to understand the mechanisms of dominance. Two points seem especially important: the client’s orientation toward a more adequate, in this case, passive position in relation to the spouse, as well as the search for constructive ways to resolve the conflict.

There is one more point that complicates the adoption of a passive position in family life, a point about which you can talk with an individual client. Excessive activity in the family is usually characteristic of people who strive for a more active, dominant position in life in general, but for some reason do not have the opportunity to realize their aspirations outside the home. In such a situation, the family becomes the concentration of all thoughts and efforts, which naturally leads to problems and difficulties in family life, which are often aggravated by the fact that the husband, passive and weak-willed in the family, is much more active and successful in other areas of life , inaccessible to his wife. This contributes to dissatisfaction and the development of unconscious competitive aspirations in the client. Thus, during the conversation, one should in one way or another touch on the problem of deep-seated personal conflicts that stand in the way of full self-realization, the resolution of which can reduce the desire to dominate (Aleshina, 1999).

2) The main problem is related to the behavior of one of the partners

The spouse's behavior is clearly inappropriate and clearly violates marital consent. For example, too jealous, explosive (a pronounced type of choleric person, constant outbursts of anger, accompanied by gross insults, and often physical violence, etc.) or hysterical (high emotionality, increased need for the attention of others, demonstrativeness, self-centeredness, etc. .). Excessive sensitivity and astheno-depressive manifestations may also be inadequate. In this case, the other spouse sometimes supplies the necessary information, but the main work is done with the “main character.” True, in the case of obvious psychopathy, etc., it is better to teach a healthy partner how to behave with a psychopath (Kratochvil, 1991).

For example, often one of the spouses comes to the consultation, unable or unwilling to bring a partner with them, in a situation where the mental or, less often, physical health of the latter causes certain problems and concerns for the client. In this case, the reason for coming can be either the need to diagnose a partner (whether he is sick or not, how serious it is), or to solve his own problems related to planning a future married life, divorce, etc. Obviously, if the client only needs diagnosis, it is better to consult a psychiatrist. Coming to a psychological consultation indicates that he is worried not only about this, but also about the need to form his own attitude towards the situation, to solve personal and interpersonal problems associated with it. The main material for consultants’ work here is the client’s story about his problems. All cases of appeals regarding a “sick” spouse most often come down to three options:

1) the client’s partner is really sick, evidence of which is numerous hospitalizations, inappropriate behavior, established diagnosis, prescribed medications, etc.;

2) the partner, judging by the client’s story, behaves quite strangely, which suggests the presence of a certain pathology and, accordingly, the need for the client to build his life taking this factor into account;

3) the behavior and reactions of the partner do not give reason to suspect mental pathology, and the situation as a whole rather indicates the presence of some serious problems in the marital relationship or certain problems and inadequacy of the client himself (Aleshina, 1999).

In a situation of mental illness, the counselor should not act as a decision maker. His task comes down to listening and understanding what the client says, since often in everyday life a person lacks understanding on the part of the interlocutor. In addition, by expressing his own difficulties and doubts, the client himself moves towards making a decision. You can give the client additional information, for example, about mental illness and institutions that provide appropriate assistance, and then he will act on his own.

If both spouses come to the appointment, they usually attend the consultation once a week (sometimes for a month, but more often for several months. The total number of visits is 5 - 15). Unfortunately, Russian clients are not yet committed to long-term work; as a rule, they want quick results and changes, and if changes do not occur, people simply give up consulting. However, if a married couple comes to the consultation and is committed to long-term work, then further events can develop according to the following plan (Kratochvil, 1991):

1) At the first appointments, it is necessary to get an idea of ​​​​the relationship between the spouses, find out the problems and plan an approach to therapy. (The psychotherapist or consultant strives to ensure that each spouse clearly defines his position; for this, he asks additional questions and summarizes what the clients have said.) The consultant (therapist) accepts the versions of both the husband and wife as equally reliable and truthful. This reduces tension. A negotiation style is gradually developed. The counselor helps spouses express their feelings without recrimination by guiding their dialogue.

2) After some improvement has occurred, the consultant (therapist) should lead the spouses to the next stage - recognizing that they are experiencing joy from the changes that have come.

Simultaneously with the regulation of communication in marital therapy (counseling), work is carried out to change incorrect positions. It is clarified what can and cannot be expected from a given marriage, and the marital agreement is deliberately formulated (so that it is acceptable and feasible for both spouses). Problems are solved sequentially, one after another, depending on their significance for a given couple.

Working with both spouses has a number of additional difficulties and disadvantages. Conducting a meeting in which two clients are involved rather than one is usually more difficult, especially in the early stages of the counseling process, since the presence of the second member of the couple somehow affects the flow of the conversation. Spouses can interrupt each other, enter into negotiations and bicker, trying to explain or prove something primarily to each other, and not to the consultant, act in a coalition against the latter, etc. Although the opposite reaction is also possible, when the presence of a partner leads to If a husband or wife becomes taciturn, each of them may expect the other to say something important. In both cases, the consultant is required to have special skills and abilities in order to reorient the spouses to work together, organize and direct the counseling process (Aleshina, 1999).

Working with two spouses, although more effective, is often superficial and less deep. In this case, serious personal problems underlying certain marital disagreements are less often addressed. The results, although convincing at first glance, are less likely to fully satisfy the clients’ requests, especially if there is something more personal behind the family problems.

Working with both spouses is in some ways more vulnerable. When only one of them wants to move on, but the characterological characteristics of the other prevent in-depth work, this can seriously interfere with counseling. It is easier to work with one spouse than with two; it is easier to adapt to one, choosing a pace of work that is more appropriate for the client. As already noted, the beginning of work, regardless of who comes to the consultation and for what reason, follows the same pattern. The main task of the consultant at the first stage is to establish contact with the client (clients) and understand what exactly brought them to the appointment. Although already at the beginning of the conversation, with the participation of both spouses in this process, certain difficulties may arise. Thus, a husband and wife may not so much state the essence of the problem as demonstrate the shortcomings of the other, remembering more and more of their partner’s sins, blaming and interrupting each other, and thus avoiding the creation of a constructive relationship with a consultant. In such a situation, the latter needs to show a certain rigidity, inviting them to speak in turns and comment on the partner’s words only with the permission of the consultant.

A common reason for seeking help is conflicts and misunderstandings regarding the distribution of roles and responsibilities. This topic is more suitable for working in pairs. In such a situation, the consultant often has to act as an expert who shows the inappropriateness and unconstructiveness of traditional views on male and female roles in the family (Aleshina, 1999). Complaints about the distribution of household and other responsibilities may only be the surface behind which are hidden much deeper and perhaps unconscious problems. When working with a married couple, it is also important that the conversation does not look like support for one spouse against the other, since this can hurt the client’s self-esteem and negatively affect the results of counseling.

Another common problem is the sexual difficulties of spouses, a rather difficult topic for both clients and inexperienced consultants. Partly, the difficulties that psychologists encounter here are explained by people’s basic ignorance of what the specifics of the activities of psychologists, sex therapists and sexologists are. In this regard, there are frequent cases of erroneous requests when clients with profound disorders of sexual behavior come to a psychologist, whom he is forced to immediately send to the appropriate specialists. But when, during the counseling process, the interlocutors suddenly “let it slip” or, which is not so rare, question the advisability of working on some non-sexual topic, saying something like: “All this is not so important. Everything would be fine with us anyway if our sex life improved,” this most likely indicates the predominance of the psychological factor in sexual difficulties. In such situations, most often the spouses can name a more or less exact date of occurrence of the violations, which is mainly associated with some changes in the life of the family or in the relationship of the spouses.

When talking about sexual problems, clients often simplify the situation, presenting existing difficulties as: “She refuses” or “He is inattentive to me,” “I have no desire,” emphasizing their physiological nature. In this situation, the consultant needs to carefully understand what these difficulties are, when they arose, how they manifest themselves, whether they exist constantly or periodically disappear, etc. This information alone gives quite a lot and often allows one to find the psychological causes of sexual problems in relationships. It is also important for a consulting psychologist not to end up in a coalition with any of the spouses and not to become an example of a “cool” man or a “sexy” woman who does not and cannot have any problems. In the case of individual work with one spouse, there is a real danger of becoming an object of eroticized transference, persistent fixation and dependence (Aleshina, 2000).

Another problem is mainly related to communication between spouses, lack of warmth, mutual understanding, and frequent quarrels. If we formulate the task of correcting communication in general terms, it is to increase the reflection of spouses about what, how and why they say to each other. It is useful to build the initial stages of working with spouses’ communication problems on a behavioral approach. Thus, even during the first conversation with a couple, it may become clear that in relation to each other they use various words and expressions, perhaps quite neutral in themselves, but pronounced in such a tone and at such moments that it is unpleasant for the other to hear them (such as “leave me alone” ", "bring it", "you should have kept quiet"). This problem may be the basis for behavioral training in a psychologist's office or at home.

The most popular techniques of behavioral marital therapy are contract conclusion, communication training, in particular in the form of constructive dispute, problem solving training, etc.

The basis of the contract is a written agreement, where the spouses clearly define their requirements (in the language of behavior) and the obligations that they are going to fulfill. When formulating requirements, it is recommended to use the following approach:

1. From general complaints one should move on to their clarification;

2. From specification of complaints - to positive proposals;

3. From positive proposals, move on to an agreement listing the responsibilities of each party.

M. Nichols (1984) describes two types of contracts.

A qui pro quo contract, which can be translated as “tit for tat,” meaning that one spouse agrees to change in response to the changes of the other. The contract is drawn up in great detail, each spouse specifies the desired changes in behavior. The therapist helps formulate an agreement. By the end of the session, they finish drawing up the contract, and everyone signs.

The other contract is called the “contract of good faith.” In a tense atmosphere of mistrust, it is very difficult to implement a qui pro quo agreement. Then, as an alternative, another contract can be concluded. Each spouse undertakes to change their behavior and reinforce these changes regardless of the changes of the other.

“Problem Solving Technique” (Schindler Z. et al., 1980) is easy to use and quite effective in resolving marital conflicts and problems. It consists of four steps (stages).

1. Spouses present a problem - specific behavior (when complaining “I don’t have enough attention,” you should clarify: “What kind of attention do you want to receive?”, “What should your spouse do so that you have the feeling that he is paying attention?”, “How much?” Will he show attention once a day, a week?”).

2. The therapist asks the spouses to describe how they feel when talking about their problem.

3. The therapist invites the spouses to find something good in each other for which they can praise.

4. Problem solving stage. The first condition for solving the problem is that both spouses offer their options without criticism. The second condition is that the most reasonable ones are selected from all the proposed options and discussed consistently. Spouses ask themselves questions: “What would you like to achieve ideally?” and “What would satisfy us in reality?” The third condition is that the agreement between the spouses must be clear, specific and controlled.

Another main goal of marital psychotherapy is to improve communication in the family, which helps resolve problems.

Among all behavioral approaches, five main strategies can be distinguished.

1. Spouses are taught to express their grievances in clear behavioral terms rather than as unstructured complaints.

2. Spouses are taught new ways of communication, mutual exchange, emphasizing positive control rather than negative control.

3. Spouses are helped to improve their communication.

4. Spouses are encouraged to establish clear and effective ways of sharing power and responsibilities.

5. Spouses are taught problem-solving strategies (Stuart, 1980).

Any of these strategies aims to increase mutual satisfaction based on positive reinforcement.

The psychotechnical techniques used by a psychologist when counseling a married couple are similar to those used in individual counseling, i.e., the consultant listens carefully, periodically paraphrases and summarizes what was said. However, paraphrasing is often aimed not at showing the client that the consultant understands and supports him, but at ensuring that the client is understood by his partner.

The consultant repeats the phrase of one, directing it to the second partner. For example, it might sound like this: “Sveta, did you understand what Sergei just said? He talked about…” (the following is paraphrasing).

Basic requirements for working with a married couple:

The consultant should respect the autonomy of the family dyad who has asked for help, its right to freely choose its own path of development (unless, of course, its lifestyle does not threaten the life and health of the child);

The consultant provides an individual approach to the family and each of its members, while relying on the resources that the family actually has. Counseling should be carried out from the point of view of positive opportunities for family development; goals and objectives cannot be artificially imposed on spouses from the outside;

When counseling a couple, the psychologist must be realistic: not try to remake the family or any of its members, ensure well-being in life or employment. He can only support the family during the period of “life breaks”, help overcome the alienation from oneself and the world typical of a crisis period, create conditions for identifying internal resources that allow one to “become the author and creator of one’s life”, and gain greater flexibility in relationships between members family, and in the relationship of the family with the outside world.

Using homework when working with spouses.

Important and, in a sense, decisive moments for further work are the homework that spouses work on between meetings (Aleshina, 2000). The content of the homework varies and is determined by the problems of the spouses, but it is the task that effectively involves clients in the work and provides the consultant with good material for discussion during the appointment. So, already at the first meeting, you can invite the spouses to start diaries in order to make notes on one or two of the following topics (homework with a large number of topics is unlikely to be completed):

I. What irritated your spouse during the week (or any other period of time determined during the appointment);

II. What conflict situations arose during the week;

III. What unpleasant things were said during this period.

At the first stage of counseling, homework allows you to more accurately and in more detail assess the situation in the family.

If at the previous meeting homework was given, then after the welcoming words, which make it possible to make sure that nothing happened to the spouses during the week that requires immediate discussion, the work should begin with this. If both spouses have completed the task, each is simply asked to read out loud the entries from their diary. If one of them, for some reason, failed to complete the task, then, naturally, only the other one reads the diary, but the second one, the one who “at fault,” is also given the floor. Various options are possible, but the easiest way is to ask him to complete the task, remembering what happened during the week. At the same time, “disobedience” should in no case be ignored: its reasons should be discussed in detail. Such an act can be either a certain form of resistance towards counseling and the consultant, or a protest against the partner. This usually hides important information for the psychologist that was not revealed during the first meeting, and it is important that the consultant uses this incident to increase motivation to work constructively.

When discussing homework, it is important to observe the spouse's reaction to what the partner is saying, and the consultant can enhance this reaction by inviting everyone to comment on the partner's diary. Based on homework, you can build many different options for work, choosing what, on the one hand, is suitable specifically for a given married couple, and on the other hand, helps not to be scattered, not to get lost in a sea of ​​information and to stick to a certain topic.

The distribution of these two areas of psychological assistance is a difficult task, since in many cases it is difficult for a professional to say whether he is engaged in psychological counseling or psychotherapy. Both counseling and psychotherapy use the same professional skills; the requirements for the personality of the client and the psychotherapist are the same; The procedures used in counseling and psychotherapy are also similar. Finally, in the first and second cases, assistance to the client is based on the interaction between the consultant (psychotherapist) and the client. Due to the difficulty of separating these two areas, some practitioners use the concepts of “psychological counseling” and “psychotherapy” as synonyms, arguing for the similarity of the activities of a psychotherapist and a psychological consultant.

There is no doubt that the boundaries between psychotherapy and counseling are very arbitrary, which has been noted more than once by various authors (Polyakov Yu. F., Spivakovskaya A. S.). But since this work is designed for people who do not have special training in the field of psychotherapy or, as we usually say, psychocorrection, we will designate these differences quite strictly, thus limiting the area where specialist consultants can work from those cases where they active influence is undesirable, since just having a psychological education and understanding the general principles of work is not enough to achieve a positive effect.

How can you differentiate between counseling and psychotherapy? What is the meaning of dividing client problems into interpersonal and deep personal, which was already mentioned above?

What problems the client comes with, interpersonal or deep-seated personal, often manifests itself in the forms of seeking help, in the specifics of complaints and expectations from a meeting with a psychologist. Clients of counseling psychologists usually emphasize the negative role of others in the emergence of their own life difficulties; For clients focused on in-depth psychocorrectional work, the locus of complaints is usually different: they are more often concerned about their own inability to control and regulate their internal states, needs and desires. Thus, a client of a psychological consultant will be characterized by complaints like: “My husband and I constantly fight” or “My wife is jealous of me for no reason.” Those who turn to a psychotherapist more often talk about their problems differently: “I can’t control myself, I’m very hot-tempered, I constantly yell at my husband” or “I’m always not sure how my wife treats me, it seems to me that she deceives, jealous of her and, apparently, for no reason.” Such a difference in the locus of complaints means quite a lot and, in particular, the fact that the client himself has already done some work to analyze his own problems and failures. The fact that a person perceives himself as responsible for what is happening to him—a step that requires a certain courage—is a guarantee that he is ready for deeper and more frank self-knowledge.

The direction of the locus of complaint and the person’s readiness determine the form of work with him. The main task of a psychological consultant is to help the client look at his problems and life difficulties from the outside, to demonstrate and discuss those aspects of relationships that, being sources of difficulties, are usually not realized and not controlled. The basis of this form of influence is, first of all, a change in the client’s attitudes both towards other people and towards various forms of interaction with them. During the advisory conversation, the client gets the opportunity to take a broader look at the situation, evaluate his role in it differently and, in accordance with this new vision, change his attitude to what is happening and his behavior.

Psychotherapeutic influence is structured differently. Complaints as such play a minor role, since already at the initial stages of work they are deepened and reformulated. In a conversation with a specialist, not only current situations of the client’s relationship are touched upon, but also the past (events of distant childhood, youth), and such specific forms of mental production as dreams and associations are actively used. An important feature of psychotherapy is special attention to the relationship between the person seeking help and the professional, the analysis of which in terms of transference and countertransference is one of the most important means of deepening and expanding the possibilities of influence, while in counseling such issues are almost never discussed. Analysis of the deep layers of the psyche leads to an understanding of the causes of pathogenic experiences and behavior and thus contributes to the solution of personal problems.

The duration of these types of psychological effects also varies. Thus, if psychological counseling is often short-term and rarely exceeds 5-6 meetings with a client, then the process of psychotherapy lasts incomparably longer and is focused on tens, or even hundreds of meetings over a number of years.

Certain differences are also associated with the types of clients. At an appointment with a psychologist-consultant, you can equally likely meet almost any person, regardless of his mental status, employment, material security, intellectual potential, etc., while the circle of people whose problems can be solved within the framework of in-depth psychocorrectional work is more limited . The ideal client is a normal neurotic, with a high level of reflection, able to pay for an often expensive and lengthy course of treatment, and with sufficient time and motivation for this. To the credit of psychotherapy, it should be said that narrowing the circle of clients and increasing the time of exposure leads to a significant expansion of the range of problems being solved, which in a certain sense becomes limitless.

It is natural to assume that with such significant differences between these two forms of influence, the training of the relevant specialists should also differ. The main requirements for a psychological consultant, from our point of view, are a psychological diploma, as well as special training in the theory and practice of psychological counseling (including work under the guidance of a supervisor), which may not be particularly long. The requirements for the education of psychotherapy specialists are much greater, and they include, along with theoretical psychological training and certain medical knowledge, also long-term experience in their own psychotherapy and work under the guidance of an experienced supervisor. It is no coincidence that psychotherapy is historically closely connected with psychiatry, and among psychotherapists, along with professional psychologists, psychiatrists are no less often found, but, of course, also those who have received special training. Note that a person who turns to a psychotherapist is traditionally called not a client, but a patient. It is impossible to imagine the full training of a specialist in this field without the experience of his own psychotherapy, thanks to which he can better navigate the problems of patients, work more fully, without fear of interference such as burnout syndrome or communication overload, and also freely use such means of influence as transference and countertransference.

The differences between psychotherapy and counseling are a broad and multifaceted topic. Of course, here we can only outline general lines of comparison. Those who are especially interested in this issue can be advised to read specialized literature (Karvasarsky B.D.; Vasilyuk F.E.).

A “man on the street” who turns to a psychologist for help, especially in our country, where not everyone understands what psychology is in principle, does not always understand what kind of help he needs and in what form it can be provided. Often, clients’ expectations are inadequate, do not correspond to the reality of life and the logic of relationships (for example, as often happens, the client begins to demand that someone fall in love or fall out of love with someone as a result of the influence of a psychologist, etc.). In this regard, often the first thing that has to be done with the client is to explain what he can expect psychological help and what kind. From this point of view, psychological counseling, being more goal-oriented and a less binding type of influence, often serves as a kind of stepping stone, the first step towards longer and deeper psychotherapeutic work. It happens that, having come to a consultant, a person for the first time thinks about his own role in his life’s failures and begins to understand that in order to really get help, one or even several meetings with a psychologist are not enough. It does not follow from this that he will immediately seek more serious help - this may not happen soon or may never happen, but even the simple knowledge that help, in principle, can be provided to him can be very important. This relationship between counseling and psychotherapy is the basis of the broad and multifaceted possibilities of practical psychology, a guarantee that everyone who applies can find for themselves what is most suitable for them at the moment.

There are specific features of psychological counseling that distinguish it from psychotherapy:

· counseling is focused on a clinically healthy person; these are people who have psychological difficulties and problems in everyday life, complaints of a neurotic nature, as well as people who feel good, but who set themselves the goal of further personal development;

· counseling is focused on the healthy aspects of the personality, regardless of the degree of impairment; this orientation is based on the belief that a person can change, choose a life that satisfies him, find ways to use his inclinations, even if they are small due to inadequate attitudes and feelings, delayed maturation, cultural deprivation, lack of finances, illness, disability, old age;

· consulting is more often focused on the present and future of clients;

· counseling usually focuses on short-term assistance (up to 15 meetings);

· counseling focuses on problems arising in the interaction of the individual and the environment;

· in counseling, the value-based participation of the consultant is emphasized, although the imposition of values ​​on clients is rejected;

· counseling is aimed at changing the behavior and developing the client’s personality.

The client is the best expert of his own problems, so during counseling you should help him take responsibility for solving his problems. The client’s vision of his own problems is no less, and perhaps more important, than the consultant’s view of them.

In the counseling process, the client's sense of security is more important than the consultant's demands. Thus, in counseling it is inappropriate to pursue a goal at any cost without paying attention to the client's emotional state.

In an effort to help the client, the consultant is obliged to “connect” all his professional and personal capabilities, but in each specific case he must not forget that he is only a person and therefore is not able to be fully responsible for another person, for his life and difficulties.

One should not expect an immediate effect from each individual counseling meeting - problem solving, as well as the success of counseling, is not like a straight upward line; This is a process in which noticeable improvements are replaced by deterioration, because self-change requires a lot of effort and risk, which do not always and do not immediately result in success.

A competent consultant knows his level of professional qualifications and his own shortcomings, he is responsible for observing ethical rules and working for the benefit of clients.

Different theoretical approaches can be used to identify and conceptualize each problem, but there is not and cannot be the best theoretical approach.

Some problems are fundamentally human dilemmas and are fundamentally insoluble (for example, the problem of existential guilt). In such cases, the counselor must help the client understand the inevitability of the situation and come to terms with it.

Effective counseling is a process that is carried out together with the client, but not instead of client.

5. Factors influencing the choice of counseling strategy

Summarizing the consideration of psychological counseling as a direction, we note that the conduct of psychological counseling has significant differences among different specialists. Let's consider the factors influencing the consultant's choice of strategy.

1. Features of the consultant himself a) personal characteristics - gender, age, social status, set of life values, personal experience of living in problematic situations, level of self-esteem, etc.)

b) methodological and methodological preferences (which scientific school he belongs to, what professional ideas he professes, what principles he is guided by);

c) professional experience (successful/unsuccessful models of professional behavior, types of preferred clients and thematic preferences, for example, family issues, business consulting, conflict management.

2.Customer Features:

• Client's readiness to receive psychological help:

  a) his awareness of the possibility and specifics of the consultative process;

  b) active desire for change (in oneself, not in other people)

  c) the presence or absence of previous experience of psychological assistance, and if so, its effectiveness.

  Area of ​​expected changes:

  a) its magnitude (the difference between the real Self and the ideal Self);

  b) the “price” of such changes (possible and inevitable losses);

  C) resources, means of achievement (including time and financial)

  Qualitative signs of a problem:

  a) place of focus of tension - internal (emotional experiences, attitudes) or external (behavior);

  b) voltage duration

  c) the severity of the problem (acute crisis state or dull, chronic state);

  d) the context of the problem (against what it arose);

  e) possible coincidence of the client’s problem with the consultant’s current problem

  Personal characteristics of the client.

Mastering psychological counseling requires serious work by the future specialist related to the development of relevant competencies (knowledge, skills).

6. Definition and scope of non-medical psychotherapy

According to the Psychotherapeutic Encyclopedia, edited by B.D. Karvasarsky psychotherapy “is currently not a clearly understood area of ​​scientific knowledge and practical approaches...”. Psychotherapy in general terms is “a special type of interpersonal interaction in which patients are provided with professional assistance through psychological means in solving their problems or mental difficulties.”

There are medical and psychological definitions of psychotherapy in the scientific literature. We are certainly interested in the latter. Psychotherapy is defined as a process in which a person, wishing to change his symptoms or life problems, or seeking personal growth, explicitly or implicitly enters into an agreement to interact in one way or another in prescribed ways with the person presented as helping"; psychotherapy is “an experience of growth, and everyone should have it” (quoted by I.N. Karitsky).

When considering the objects of psychotherapy, the issue of norm and pathology is debatable. Extreme options for answering it: this is the thesis that almost the entire population of the earth has serious mental problems (radical psychiatry), and the opposite thesis that there are no mentally ill people, all mental manifestations are manifestations of an individual norm (antipsychiatry).

Of course, there are a number of transitional stages from normality to pathology - borderline states. A number of steps between them gravitate toward pathology (psychopathy), but the other row, without a doubt, is a unique feature of the norm (accentuation).

Normal Borderline conditions Pathology

Non-medical psychotherapy (this is what we are talking about within the framework of the specialty) is used in relation to certain personal suffering, personal problems and psychological needs of a mentally healthy person (the norm) or a person whose condition can be classified as borderline. Medical psychology deals with pathological conditions.

Thus, the consideration of psychotherapy is a type of psychological practice. It meets the criteria for psychological practice (see Lecture 4).

Psychotherapy can be carried out in both individual and group forms. Most often, group psychotherapy is considered the most effective.

Psychological assistance in psychotherapy is provided through the complex influence of a number of so-called “therapeutic factors”. I. Yalom, the author of the monograph “Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy,” which is a kind of encyclopedia on psychotherapy, describes and analyzes them in detail in his monograph Let’s consider these factors.

7. Psychotherapeutic factors, according to I. Yalom

1.Instilling hope. I. Yalom claims that infusion is the cornerstone of any psychotherapy. Belief in treatment in itself can give a therapeutic effect, so psychotherapists should place emphasis on this, in every possible way strengthening the patient’s faith in the success of the group method of psychotherapy. Research shows that the expectation of help from the upcoming treatment significantly correlates with the positive outcome of therapy.. This work begins yet before the actual start of the group, during introductory meetings, when the psychotherapist strengthens the positive attitude and eliminates preconceived negative ideas. What contributes to the success of group therapy is not only a general positive attitude, but also hope. Additionally, seeing others improve is also an important aspect.

2. Universality of experiences. Many patients enter therapy with anxiety, believing that they are unique in their unhappiness, that they are the only ones who have frightening or unacceptable problems, thoughts, impulses, or fantasies. Due to their social isolation, people have a heightened sense of their own uniqueness.

In the therapeutic group, especially in the early stages of functioning, the weakening of this inherent sense of the patient's own uniqueness is more conducive to alleviating his condition. After listening to other group members share concerns similar to their own, patients report feeling more connected to the world: “We're all in the same boat.”

3. Supply of information. Therapists, in group work, present information on issues of mental health, mental illness and general psychodynamics, give advice, suggestions or direct guidance that offers the patient recommendations for specific cases. In addition, in a group, its members receive information, advice, and recommendations from each other.

The provision of information from the psychotherapist can be in the form of educational instructions and direct advice. Let's look at them.

Educational instruction. Most therapists do not provide explicit training, but in many approaches to therapy, formal instruction or psychological training has become an important part of work programs.

For example, bereaved group facilitators teach participants about the natural cycle of grief, thereby helping them to recognize that they are going through a sequence of stages of suffering and that their pain will naturally, almost inevitably, ease. Facilitators help patients anticipate, for example, the acute attacks that they will experience on each significant date (holidays, anniversaries, birthdays) in the first year after loss.

Another example: the leaders of groups for women with their first pregnancy can provide them with significant assistance by explaining the physiological basis of the physical and psychological changes that occur in them, as well as describing the process and features of pregnancy and childbirth. Participants are encouraged to voice their fears, which enables facilitators to systematically and rationally address irrational beliefs using appropriate information.

Direct advice. In contrast to overt instructional instruction from the therapist, direct advice from group members is present in all therapy groups without exception. The least effective form of advice is a directly stated proposal, the most effective is systematic, detailed instructions or a set of alternative recommendations to achieve the desired goal.

4. Altruism. Many who come to groups at the very beginning are convinced that they have nothing to give to others; they are accustomed to looking at themselves as unnecessary and uninteresting to anyone. Gradually, here they become a source of support and consolation for each other, give advice, promote insights, they share problems with each other. When they part with the group at the end of its work, they thank each other for the participation that each took in relation to each other.

5. Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group. (in other words, correction of unconstructive experiences of living in a family group with constructive ones gained in a therapeutic group). Most patients typically have a history of extremely unsatisfactory experiences with their primary group, the family. The therapeutic group is like a family in many ways: it also includes authoritative parental figures, peer siblings, deep personal relationships, strong emotions, and deep intimacy as well as hostility and competition. In practice, psychotherapy groups are often led by two therapists - a man and a woman - in a deliberate attempt to simulate the parental family. All this allows you to gain constructive experience of the “family group” experiences.

The main differences between psychological counseling and psychocorrection and psychotherapy:

· Wider scope of application compared to clinical practice, addressing the problems of mentally healthy people.

· Orientation towards a wider use of data obtained in empirical studies organized according to an experimental plan, using methods of mathematical statistics to analyze the results.

· Working primarily with situational problems solved at the level of consciousness, as opposed to focusing on in-depth analysis of problems and working with the unconscious in psychotherapy.

· Large subject-subjectivity, dialogical communication between the consultant psychologist and the client.

· Focus on the healthy aspects of the client’s personality, rejection of the concept of illness in the process of working with him, recognition of the client’s rights to greater variability in behavioral reactions and mental states as healthy rather than painful phenomena.

· Focus on greater activity and independence of the client in the process of working with him, awakening a person’s internal resources.

· Acceptability in psychological counseling of a wider range of different professional models of activity of a consulting psychologist than in psychotherapy.

Differences between psychological counseling and psychotherapy (according to Yulia Evgenievna Aleshina):

Differences related to the nature of the customer complaint. In the case of psychological counseling, the client complains of difficulties in interpersonal relationships or in carrying out any activity. In a psychotherapy-oriented case, the client complains of an inability to control himself.

Differences related to the diagnostic process. In psychological counseling, diagnostics are primarily aimed at events of the present and recent past. In this case, significant attention is paid to specific behavior and interpersonal relationships. In a significant part of psychotherapeutic approaches, diagnosis is primarily aimed at events in distant childhood and adolescence (the probable time of receipt of psychological trauma). Considerable attention is also paid to the analysis of the unconscious - dreams and associations are studied.

Differences related to the impact process. The basis of psychological counseling is, first of all, changing the client’s attitudes towards other people and various forms of relationships with them. In a significant part of psychotherapeutic approaches, much greater attention is paid to the relationship between the client and the psychotherapist, the analysis of which in terms of transference and countertransference is one of the most important means of deepening and expanding the possibilities of influence.

Differences related to work timing. Psychological counseling is most often short-term and rarely exceeds 5–6 meetings with the client. Psychotherapy often focuses on dozens or even hundreds of meetings over a number of years.

Differences related to the type of clients. Almost anyone can be a client in psychological counseling. Most areas of psychotherapy are aimed at people with neurotic disorders, with a high level of development of a tendency towards introspection and introspection, who are able to pay for an often expensive and lengthy course of treatment, and who have sufficient time and motivation for this.

Differences in the requirements for the level of training of the specialist making the impact. A consulting psychologist needs a psychological diploma and some additional special training in the theory and practice of psychological counseling, which may not be particularly long. A psychotherapist must have a medical education and a certificate certifying his right to work within the direction of psychotherapy that he has chosen.

The concept of psychological counseling and psychotherapy. Types of psychological assistance: similarities and differences. Definition of psychological counseling. Theories of personality and goals of counseling. Definition and scope of non-medical psychotherapy.

Essay

Psychological counseling and psychotherapy

1. Ppsychologicallyecounselingeand psychotherapyI as types of psychological assistance: similarities and differences.

2.Definition of psychological counseling

3.

4. Personality theories and counseling practice

5. Factors influencing the choice of counseling strategy.

6. Definition and scope of non-medical psychotherapy.

7. Psychotherapeutic factors, according to I. Yalom

Literature:

1. Ivy E., Ivy Mary B., Downing Link S. Psychological counseling and psychotherapy. M.,

2. Kochunas R. Psychological counseling. M.: Academic project, 1999.

3. Rogers K.

4. Rudestam K. Group psychotherapy. M.,

5. Yalom I. Theory and practice of group psychotherapy. M., 2000

1. Psychological counseling and psychotherapy as types of psychologicalaid: similarities and differences

It is difficult to draw a clear line between these two areas of work of a psychologist. They are a process psychological assistance to a person in becoming a productive, developing personality, capable of self-knowledge and self-support, choosing optimal behavioral strategies and their use in real interpersonal interaction, overcoming emerging difficulties, a responsible and conscious attitude towards one’s life. The main task of the psychologist in carrying out this work is to create conditions under which this will become possible.

1. When talking about the relationship between counseling and psychotherapy, they usually resort to the idea of ​​two poles of a continuum. At one extreme, the work of a professional concerns mainly situational problems that are solved at the level of consciousness and arise in clinically healthy individuals. This is where the counseling area is located. At the other pole is a greater desire for a deep analysis of problems with a focus on unconscious processes and structural restructuring of the personality. This is where the field of psychotherapy is located. The area between the poles belongs to activities that can be called both counseling and psychotherapy.

In addition, there are specific features of psychological counseling that distinguish it from psychotherapy:

2. Counseling is focused on a clinically healthy person; these are people who have psychological difficulties and problems in everyday life, complaints of a neurotic nature, as well as people who feel good, but who set themselves the goal of further personal development;

3. Counseling is focused on healthy aspects of the personality, regardless of the degree of impairment; this orientation is based on the belief that “a person can change, choose a satisfying life, find ways to use his inclinations, even if they are small due to inadequate attitudes and feelings, delayed maturation, cultural deprivation, lack of finances, illness, disability, old age "(Jordan et al.; cited in: Myers et al., 1968);

4. Counseling is more often focused on the present and future of clients; in psychotherapy, work is done with the past, problems repressed into the unconscious are worked out;

5. Counseling usually focuses on short-term assistance (up to 15 meetings), etc.

Proper organization of the process of psychological counseling and psychotherapy allows the client:

· look at yourself from a new point of view,

· realize the true motives of your behavior and unconstructive ways of implementing them;

· see intrapersonal or interpersonal conflict;

· gain new experience.

2 . Definition of psychological counseling

Psychological counseling as an area of ​​psychological practice emerged from psychotherapy. It arose in response to the needs of people who do not have clinical disorders, but are seeking psychological help. Therefore, in psychological counseling, the psychologist primarily encounters people experiencing difficulties in everyday life.

The range of problems with which people turn to a consulting psychologist is truly wide:

Difficulties at work (job dissatisfaction, conflicts with colleagues and managers, possibility of dismissal),

Unsettled personal life and troubles in the family,

poor performance of children at school,

lack of self-confidence and self-esteem,

painful hesitation in decision making,

Difficulties in establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, etc.

Consulting as an activity has been defined in various ways. For example, one of the definitions interprets consulting How " a set of procedures aimed at helping a person solve problems and make decisions regarding professional career, marriage, family, personal development and interpersonal relationships."

Another definition notes that the purpose of counseling is “to help the client understand what is happening in his life space and meaningfully achieve his goal based on conscious choice in resolving problems of an emotional and interpersonal nature.”

Summarizing the existing definitions of psychological counseling, R. Kociunas notes that they all include several basic provisions:

1. Counseling helps a person to choose and act on his own.

2. Counseling helps to learn new behavior.

3. Counseling promotes personal development.

4. Counseling emphasizes the client's responsibility, i.e. it is recognized that an independent, responsible individual is capable of making independent decisions in appropriate circumstances, and the consultant creates conditions that encourage the client’s volitional behavior.

5. The core of counseling is the “counseling interaction” between client and consultant, based on the philosophy of “client-centered” therapy.

Thus, definitions of psychological counseling cover the core attitudes of the consultant in relation to a person in general and a client in particular. The consultant accepts the client as a unique, autonomous individual, whose right of free choice, self-determination, and the right to live his own life is recognized and respected. It is all the more important to recognize that any suggestion or pressure prevents the client from accepting responsibility and correctly solving his problems.

3 . Goals of psychological counseling

The main goals of counseling depend on the needs of clients seeking psychological help and the theoretical orientation of the consultant himself. In this case, the main ones, as a rule, are:

1. Promote behavior change so that the client can live a more productive, life-satisfying life, despite some inevitable social restrictions.

2. Develop coping skills when faced with new life circumstances and demands.

3. Ensure effective vital decision-making. There are many things that can be learned during counseling: independent actions, distribution of time and energy, assessing the consequences of risk, exploring the value field in which decisions are made, assessing the properties of one’s personality, overcoming emotional stress, understanding the influence of attitudes on decision making, etc. .P.

4. Develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. Socializing with people is a significant part of life and is difficult for many due to low self-esteem or poor social skills. Whether it is adult family conflicts or children's relationship problems, clients' quality of life should be improved through training in better interpersonal relationships.

5. Facilitate the realization and increase of the individual’s potential. According to Blocher (1966), counseling should strive to maximize the client's freedom (taking into account natural social constraints), as well as to develop the client's ability to control his environment and his own reactions provoked by the environment.

R. Kochunas systematized the goals of counseling depending on the consultants’ commitment to a particular school in the form of a table:

Table 1. Current ideas about the goals of counseling

Direction	Goals of counseling
Psychoanalytic direction	Bring into consciousness the material repressed into the unconscious; help the client reproduce early experiences and analyze repressed conflicts; reconstruct the basic personality
Adlerian direction	Transform the client’s life goals; help him form socially significant goals and correct erroneous motivation by gaining a sense of equality with other people
Behavior Therapy	Correct inappropriate behavior and teach effective behavior
Rational-emotive therapy (A.Ellis)	Eliminate the client’s “self-destructive” approach to life and help form a tolerant and rational approach; teach the use of the scientific method in solving behavioral and emotional problems
Client-centered therapy (C. Rogers)	Create a favorable counseling climate suitable for self-exploration and recognition of factors that interfere with personal growth; encourage the client's openness to experience, self-confidence, spontaneity
Existential therapy	Help the client realize his freedom and his own capabilities; encourage him to take responsibility for what happens to him; identify factors blocking freedom

Summarizing these ideas, it can be stated that the goals of psychological counseling constitute a continuum, at one pole of which there are general, global, long-term goals, and at the other, specific, specific, short-term goals. The goals of counseling are not necessarily in conflict; it is just that transformational schools emphasize long-range goals, while behavior change schools emphasize specific goals.

When working with a client, the consultant must remember the main goal of counseling - to help the client understand that he himself is the person who must decide, act, change, and actualize his abilities.

4. Personality theories and counseling practice

The importance of theory in psychological counseling, as in other areas of psychological practice, cannot be overestimated. R. Kociunas argues that an attempt to skillfully help another person in solving his problems without relying on a system of theoretical views is like flying without guidelines. Theory helps the counselor formulate dynamic hypotheses that explain the client's problems, and allows the counselor to feel safe when confronted with the chaotic, disorganized inner world of some clients.

Each theory performs four main functions:

· summarizes the accumulated information;

· makes complex phenomena more understandable;

· predicts the consequences of various circumstances;

· promotes the search for new facts (George, Cristiani, 1990).

The theory helps the consultant generalize his experience of working with a wide variety of clients, understand the nature of most of their problems and the forms of manifestation of conflicts, and promotes the effective use of specific methods. Thanks to theoretical training, the consultant can put forward hypotheses in his practical work and anticipate the results of counseling.

Each consultant, based on practice, “constructs” his own theory, which most often relies on already known theoretical paradigms or orientations (psychoanalytic, behavioral-cognitive, existential-humanistic). With the accumulation of experience, the theoretical base is constantly adjusted, expanded, and strengthened.

What determines the choice of one or another theoretical orientation? First of all, it is determined by the consultant's point of view on human nature. The theory helps the consultant answer fundamental questions:

· what is a person?

· what innate tendencies are characteristic of him?

· Is a person’s choice free under any circumstances or is it determined by heredity and past events?

· Are there prerequisites for a person to change and how can he change?

The answers to these questions determine how the consultant understands the structure of personality, the determination of behavior, the genesis of pathology, and the prospects for normal development.

The main principles of the main schools of psychological counseling and psychotherapy differ significantly (See: Table 2).

Table 2. Theoretical principles

modern psychological trends

Direction	Basic theoretical principles
Psychoanalytic direction	The essence of a person is determined by the psychic energy of a sexual nature and the experiences of early childhood. The basis of the personality structure is made up of three instances: id, ego and superego. Behavior is motivated by aggressive and sexual impulses. Pathology arises due to conflicts repressed in childhood. Normal development is based on the timely alternation of stages of sexual development and integration
Adlerian direction	The positive nature of man is emphasized. Each person develops a unique lifestyle in early childhood; a person creates his own destiny. Human behavior is motivated by the desire to achieve goals and social interest. Life difficulties contribute to the formation of an unfavorable lifestyle. Normal personality development presupposes adequate life goals
Behavior Therapy	Man is a product of the environment and at the same time its creator. Behavior is formed through the learning process. Normal behavior is taught through reinforcement and imitation. Problems arise from poor training
Rational-emotive therapy (A. Ellis)	A person is born with a tendency towards rational thinking, but at the same time with a tendency towards paralogicality. He may fall prey to irrational ideas. Life's problems arise due to erroneous beliefs. Normal behavior is based on rational thinking and timely correction of decisions made
Client-centered therapy	The positive nature of man is emphasized - his inherent desire for self-realization. Problems arise when some feelings are displaced from the field of consciousness and the assessment of experience is distorted. The basis of mental health is the correspondence of the ideal self to the real self, achieved by realizing the potential of one’s own personality, and the desire for self-knowledge, self-confidence, spontaneity
Existential nary therapy	The main focus is on a person's ability to understand his inner world, freely choose his destiny, responsibility and existential anxiety as the main motivating factor, the search for unique meaning in a meaningless world, loneliness and relationships with others, the temporariness of life and the problem of death. Normal personality development is based on the uniqueness of each individual.

Structure of the Consulting Process

None of the theoretical orientations or schools of psychological counseling reflects all possible situations of interaction between a consultant and a client. Therefore, consider the most general model of the structure of the advisory process, called eclectic (B. E. Gilland and associates; 1989). This systemic model, covering six closely related stages, reflects the universal features of psychological counseling or psychotherapy of any orientation.

1. Research of problems. At this stage, the consultant establishes a rapport with the client and achieves mutual trust: it is necessary to listen carefully to the client talking about his difficulties and show maximum sincerity, empathy, and care, without resorting to assessments and manipulation. The client should be encouraged to in-depth consider the problems he has encountered and record his feelings, the content of his statements, and non-verbal behavior.

2. Two-dimensional definition of problems. At this stage, the counselor seeks to accurately characterize the client's problems, identifying both the emotional and cognitive aspects of them. Problems are clarified until the client and consultant reach the same understanding; problems are defined by specific concepts. Accurate identification of problems allows us to understand their causes, and sometimes indicates ways to resolve them. If difficulties or ambiguities arise when identifying problems, then we need to return to the research stage.

3. Identification of alternatives. At this stage, possible alternatives for solving problems are identified and openly discussed. Using open-ended questions, the consultant encourages the client to name all possible options that he considers appropriate and realistic, helps to put forward additional alternatives, but does not impose his decisions. During the conversation, you can create a written list of options to make them easier to compare. Problem-solving alternatives should be found that the client could use directly.

4. Planning. At this stage, a critical assessment of the selected solution alternatives is carried out. The counselor helps the client figure out which alternatives are appropriate and realistic in terms of previous experience and current willingness to change. Creating a realistic problem-solving plan should also help the client understand that not all problems are solvable. Some problems take too long; others can be solved only partially by reducing their destructive, behavior-disrupting effects. In terms of problem solving, it is necessary to provide by what means and methods the client will check the realism of the chosen solution (role-playing games, “rehearsal” of actions, etc.).

5. Activity. At this stage, a consistent implementation of the problem solving plan occurs. The consultant helps the client build activities taking into account circumstances, time, emotional costs, as well as understanding the possibility of failure in achieving goals. The client must learn that partial failure is not a disaster and should continue to implement a plan to solve the problem, linking all actions with the final goal.

6. Evaluation and feedback. At this stage, the client, together with the consultant, evaluates the level of goal achievement (the degree of problem resolution) and summarizes the results achieved. If necessary, the solution plan can be clarified. When new or deeply hidden problems arise, a return to previous stages is necessary.

This model, which reflects the consultation process, only helps to better understand how specific consultation occurs. The actual consulting process is much more extensive and often does not follow this algorithm. The identification of stages is conditional, since in practical work some stages overlap with others, and their interdependence is more complex than in the presented diagram.

Alan E. Ivey, Mary B. Ivey, Link Syman-Downing, describing the consulting process, note that its main method is an interview, the structure of which includes the following stages:

Determination of stage	Functions and goals of the stage
1. Mutual understanding/structuring. "EtcAndVet!	Build a strong alliance with the client, make him feel psychologically comfortable. Structuring may be necessary to explain the purpose of the interview. A certain structure helps not to be distracted from the main task, and also gives the client information about the capabilities of the consultant.
2. Collection of information. Identification of the problem, identification of the client’s potential capabilities. "In whatproblem?"	Determine why the client came for consultation and how he sees his problem. Skillful identification of the problem will help to avoid aimless conversation and sets the direction for the conversation. It is necessary to clearly understand the client's positive capabilities.
3. Desired result. What does the client want to achieve? “What do you want to achieve?”	Define the client's ideal. What kind of person would he like to become? What happens when the problems are resolved? (This informs the psychologist about what exactly the client wants.) The desired direction of action between the client and the psychologist must be reasonably agreed upon. With some clients, it is necessary to skip the 2nd stage and first highlight the goals.
4. Development of alternative solutions. "Whatwe can stilldo this-mu povOduh?	Work with different options for solving this problem. This implies a creative approach to a given task, a search for alternatives to avoid rigidity, and a choice among these alternatives. This stage may include a long-term study of personal dynamics. This interview phase may be the longest
5. Communication of results. Moving from learning to action. "You will you do This?"	Facilitate changes in thoughts, actions and feelings in the client's daily life. Many clients do nothing after the interview to change their behavior, remaining in their previous positions.

Experts involved in the practice of counseling note that in the process of working with a client, it is not so much the diagrams that are important (although a general idea and understanding of the course of counseling is required), but professional and human competence consultant.

R. Kociunas formulates the general rules and guidelines of a consultant that structure the consulting process and make it effective:

1. No two clients or counseling situations are the same. Human problems may appear similar only from the outside, but because they arise, develop, and exist in the context of unique human lives, the problems themselves are in reality unique. Therefore, each advisory interaction is unique and unrepeatable.

2. In the process of counseling, the client and the consultant constantly change in accordance with their relationship; There are no static situations in psychological counseling.

3. The client is the best expert of his own problems, so during counseling you should help him take responsibility for solving his problems. The client’s vision of his own problems is no less, and perhaps more important, than the consultant’s view of them.

4. In the counseling process, the client's sense of security is more important than the consultant's demands. Thus, in counseling it is inappropriate to pursue a goal at any cost without paying attention to the client's emotional state.

5. In an effort to help the client, the consultant is obliged to “connect” all his professional and personal capabilities, but in each specific case he must not forget that he is only a person and therefore is not able to be fully responsible for another person, for his life and difficulties.

6. One should not expect an immediate effect from each individual counseling meeting - problem solving, as well as the success of counseling, are not like a straight upward line; This is a process in which noticeable improvements are replaced by deterioration, because self-change requires a lot of effort and risk, which do not always and do not immediately result in success.

7. A competent consultant knows the level of his professional qualifications and his own shortcomings, he is responsible for observing the rules of ethics and working for the benefit of clients.

8. Different theoretical approaches can be used to identify and conceptualize each problem, but there is not and cannot be the best theoretical approach.

9. Some problems are essentially human dilemmas and are in principle insoluble (for example, the problem of existential guilt). In such cases, the counselor must help the client understand the inevitability of the situation and come to terms with it.

10. Effective counseling is a process that is done together with the client, but not instead of client.

5. Factors influencing the choice of counseling strategy

Summarizing the consideration of psychological counseling as a direction, we note that the conduct of psychological counseling has significant differences among different specialists. Let's consider the factors influencing the consultant's choice of strategy.

1. Features of the consultant himself a) personal characteristics - gender, age, social status, set of life values, personal experience of living in problematic situations, level of self-esteem, etc.)

b) methodological and methodological preferences (which scientific school he belongs to, what professional ideas he professes, what principles he is guided by);

c) professional experience (successful/unsuccessful models of professional behavior, types of preferred clients and thematic preferences, for example, family issues, business consulting, conflict management.

2.Customer Features:

· Client's readiness to receive psychological help:

· a) his awareness of the possibility and specifics of the consultative process;

b) active desire for change (in oneself, not in other people)

· c) the presence or absence of previous experience of psychological assistance, and if so, its effectiveness.

· Area of ​​expected changes:

· a) its magnitude (the difference between the real Self and the ideal Self);

· b) the “price” of such changes (possible and inevitable losses);

· B) resources, means of achievement (including time and financial)

Qualitative signs of a problem:

· a) place of focus of tension - internal (emotional experiences, attitudes) or external (behavior);

b) voltage duration

c) the severity of the problem (acute crisis state or dull, chronic state);

· d) the context of the problem (against what it arose);

e) possible coincidence of the client’s problem with the consultant’s current problem

· Personal characteristics of the client.

Mastering psychological counseling requires serious work by the future specialist related to the development of relevant competencies (knowledge, skills).

6. Definition and scope of non-medical psychotherapy

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