What is sociometry used for? Sociometry as a method in psychology

The small group as an object of research occupies a special place in the system of social sciences. It concentrates a number of important problems of both a socio-practical, managerial and theoretical-research nature.

The process of direct social interaction that occurs in a small group and creates a person’s social “microenvironment” is an extremely strong factor in the formation and education of the individual, socio-psychological stimulation and regulation of its activities. A small group is an important element of the social system as a whole; it focuses within itself the social relations in which it is intertwined and embodies them in intra-group relations. Knowledge of the mechanisms of these relationships is a necessary element of social management built on a scientific basis. At the same time, it is in a small group that the action of these mechanisms is so clear and diverse that it allows one to successfully apply and analyze a variety of approaches to explaining social reality - sociological, socio-psychological and psychological, dynamic and statistical, etc.

One of the most effective ways to study emotional-immediate relationships within a small group is sociometry. It is a unique way of quantifying interpersonal relationships in a group.

The term “sociometry” comes from the Latin word societas - society and the Greek metruin - measure and denotes, on the one hand, the branch of social psychology and sociology that studies interpersonal relationships in small groups using quantitative methods with an emphasis on the study of likes and dislikes within the group, and on the other sides - applied direction, including the study, improvement and use of appropriate tools for solving practical problems. Psychology. Dictionary / General ed. A.V.Petrovsky, M.G.Yaroshevsky. -- 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Politizdat, 1990. - 494 p.

Sociometry is the science of society created by the Italian psychologist G. Moreno, the psychological theory of society and at the same time an experimental method, a socio-psychological test that allows one to study and, on the basis of the acquired knowledge, regulate interpersonal connections and relationships in a group.

The goal of sociometry is to harmonize social relations by arranging people in a group depending on their emotional preferences and neutralizing emotional aversions between group members.

The essence of sociometric technology at the operational level of analysis is determined by the concept of “choice”. Based on the characteristics of the group, questions are formulated that encourage group members to make a choice or determine preferences among group members as partners from the point of view of both business interaction and emotional and sensory perception (“for the soul” and “for the soul”).

A wide range of assessments is possible here, due to positive and negative real choices, positive or negative perceived choices. Analysis of statements provides very useful information about the number of choices or rejections received by each member of the group, the number of mutual choices or rejections, the number of justified or unjustified assumptions for choice or rejection by other group members, etc. Ultimately, sociometry will identify the leaders of the group, outcasts, microgroups and will give other information. Sociometry can be carried out taking into account the motives of elections, which significantly enriches the analysis of group differentiation.

The number of elections received by each person serves as a measure of his position in the system of interpersonal relations, his sociometric status.

The results obtained using the sociometric technique can be presented in the form of matrices, sociograms, and numerical indices.

A sociogram is a graphic expression of the mathematical processing of the results of a study of interpersonal relationships. It allows you to visualize the structure of relationships in a group, and in different forms - individually for each group member and for the entire group as a whole. Group members are graphically placed depending on their popularity - in the center or on the periphery, while almost all connections are reflected.

The sociometric “alignment” can have the following structure: - people who receive the most positive choices. This means that they are the most popular, liked, they are called “stars”. Typically, the group of "stars" are those who receive the most positive selections, provided that everyone makes three selections;

People getting the average number of such choices. They fall into the "preferred" category;

People receiving less than the average number of positive choices. They are categorized as neglected;

People who don't get any positive choices. These are the people who are ignored and rejected.

As a result of sociometric research, the leader receives not only information about the position of each group member in the system of interpersonal relations, but also a generalized picture of the state of this system or what is usually called the psychological climate of the group. It is characterized by a special indicator - the level of well-being of group relationships. He can be:

High if there are more “stars” and “preferred” in total than “neglected”, “rejected” group members;

Average, if there is an approximate equality of these values;

Low if the number of “neglected”, “isolated” and “rejected” group members is greater than the number of “stars” and “preferred” ones.

RESEARCH PROGRAM

Research base: State Educational Institution “Orphanage No. 1”, Arkhangelsk

Number of subjects: 21 people.

Purpose: study of interpersonal relationships in groups of different ages through psychological testing and participant observation.

Object: pupils of an orphanage.

Subject: interpersonal relationships of orphans and children without parental care.

Research methods:

Sociometry;

Projective test “Subjective feeling of being in a group”;

Mathematical processing;

Analysis and interpretation of the obtained data.

Two groups were taken for the study.

In the first - children from 8 to 15 years old, 7 boys and 3 girls. In the second - children from 9 to 17 years old. 6 boys and 5 girls.

Group members are invited to answer questions. The question is read out and instructions are given: “Write on a piece of paper under number 1 the name of the group member whom you would choose first, under number 2 - who you would choose if there was no first, under number 3 - who would you choose , if there were no first and second."

Questions for sociometric research:

Which member of your group would you be willing to do a joint task with?

Which member of your group would you go to the cinema with?

1. “Stars” - Valya K., Sasha Y.;

"Preferred" - no;

“Accepted” - Zhenya K., Dima B., Egor F., Sergey K., Natasha Ch., Anya K.;

“Unaccepted” - Christina Ch.; Natasha Ch.

“Rejected” - Dima M.

2. “Stars” - Ilona V, Galya M.;

“Preferred” - Sasha Z.;

“Accepted” - Kostya A., Vitalik S., Vitya N., Katya T., Oksana A.;

“Unaccepted” - Ivan S., Anya R.;

“Rejected” - Roma Yu.

Analyzing the role repertoire, we can say that “Stars” have a higher level of activity, they are more friendly and conscientious than other members of the group. These children regulate interpersonal relationships, lead the group, organize, plan and manage the group’s activities. The leaders of these groups make more direct decisions regarding group activities, stimulate the group, and direct it to solve certain problems. A leader is not always successful; under certain conditions, leadership capabilities can increase, and under others, on the contrary, decrease. In addition to the “Stars,” there are other social roles in the group. Most of the group are “Accepted” and “Preferred”. “Unaccepted” and “Rejected” have lower communication abilities than the rest, among them are children who have recently joined the group and who are adapting to the group, as well as children with deviant behavior.

To harmonize interpersonal relationships at a given time, the following methods can be used, but for this it should be taken into account that a group is not a sum of individuals, but a community that influences the behavior of all members:

Inclusion of individuals in joint activities. This activity becomes so significant in the life of each member of the group that he accepts its values ​​not under influence or persuasion, but independently;

Generalization of attention, interests, motives, attitudes, morals, customs and habits;

Rivalry with another group or groups (cohesive people feel supported by each other, and they do not experience tension in relationships or dissatisfaction with themselves).

Subjective feeling of being in a group

To confirm the data obtained through sociometric research, the children were asked a task on their subjective feeling of being in a group. The essence of this task was to complete a creative task in which children were asked to imagine and depict their group in the form of colored circles on a blank sheet of paper using colored pencils.

Purpose: study of interpersonal relationships in groups of different ages.

This task was analyzed according to the following criteria:

According to the color scheme: children were offered a choice of six colors: red, brown, black, yellow, blue, green. By the color of the circles you can determine your personal attitude towards a person;

By the size of the circles: the significance of this person in the group was determined (the larger the size of the circle, the more significant the person is";

By the location of the circles on the sheet: determining the distance in relationships with individual members of the group;

In one of the groups, respondents included members who were educators, and they depicted them as large yellow circles. These data indicate that children consider caregivers to be important members of their group. Bright colors are the basis of the chosen color; children avoid dark colors. Thus, we can conclude that there are good, warm, emotional relationships within the group.

This positive experience in organizing educational activities in an orphanage was formed as a result of the team’s search for optimal conditions for the formation of the personality of an orphanage pupil.

The term "sociometry" means the measurement of interpersonal relationships in a group. It is no coincidence that the founder of sociometry, the famous American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno, called this method that way. The totality of interpersonal relationships in a group constitutes, according to J. Moreno, that primary socio-psychological structure, the characteristics of which largely determine not only the holistic characteristics of the group, but also the mental state of a person.

The introduction of this method into the research of Soviet psychologists is associated with the names of E.S. Kuzmina, Ya.L. Kolominsky, V.A. Yadova, I.P. Volkova and others.

Sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, one can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities, and judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

Along with the official or formal structure of communication, reflecting the rational, normative, obligatory side of human relationships, in any social group there is always a psychological structure of an unofficial or informal order, which is formed as a system of interpersonal relationships, likes and dislikes. The features of such a structure largely depend on the value orientations of the participants, their perception and understanding of each other, mutual assessments and self-esteem. As a rule, several informal structures arise in a group, for example, structures of mutual support, mutual influence, popularity, prestige, leadership, etc. The informal structure depends on the formal structure of the group to the extent that individuals subordinate their behavior to the goals and objectives of joint activities, the rules of role interactions. With the help of sociometry, this influence can be assessed. Sociometric methods make it possible to express intragroup relations in the form of numerical values ​​and graphs and thus obtain valuable information about the state of the group.

For sociometric research, it is important that any structure of an informal nature, whether we want it or not, is always projected in one way or another onto the formal structure, i.e. on the system of business, official relations, and thereby influenced the cohesion of the team and its productivity. These provisions have been verified by experiment and practice.

The most general task of sociometry is the study of the informal structural aspect of a social group and the psychological atmosphere prevailing in it.

Sociometric procedure

The general scheme of actions for sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey. When sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are recorded on a special card or offered orally in an interview style. Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes or, conversely, antipathies, trust or distrust, etc.

In this case, the sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms. The first option is a nonparametric procedure. In this case, the subject is asked to answer questions on a sociometric card without limiting the number of choices the subject can make. If there are, say, 12 people in a group, then in this case each of the respondents can choose 11 people (except himself). Thus, the theoretically possible number of choices made by each group member towards other group members in the above example will be equal to (N-1), where N is the number of group members. In the same way, the theoretically possible number of choices received by a subject in a group will be equal to (N-1). The indicated value (N-1) of the resulting selections is the main quantitative constant of sociometric measurements. In a nonparametric procedure, this theoretical constant is the same for both the individual making the choice and for any individual who is the object of the choice. The advantage of this version of the procedure is that it allows us to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each group member and to make a snapshot of the diversity of interpersonal connections in the group structure. However, when the group size increases to 12-16 people, these connections become so numerous that it is very difficult to analyze them without the use of computer technology.

Another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of obtaining a random selection. Some subjects, guided by personal motives, often write in questionnaires: “I choose everyone.” It is clear that such an answer can have only two explanations: either the subject really has developed such a generalized amorphous and undifferentiated system of relationships with others (which is unlikely), or the subject deliberately gives a false answer, hiding behind formal loyalty to others and to the experimenter (which is most likely) .

Analysis of such cases has led some researchers to try to change the very procedure for applying the method and thus reduce the likelihood of random selection. This is how the second option was born - a parametric procedure with a limited number of choices. The subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. For example, in a group of 25 people, everyone is asked to choose only 4 or 5 people. The magnitude of the limitation on the number of sociometric elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.”

Many researchers believe that the introduction of a “sociometric constraint” significantly exceeds the reliability of sociometric data and facilitates statistical processing of the material. From a psychological point of view, sociometric limitation forces subjects to be more attentive to their answers, to choose to answer only those group members who really correspond to the proposed roles of partner, leader or comrade in joint activities. The election limit significantly reduces the likelihood of random responses and makes it possible to standardize election conditions in groups of different sizes in one sample, which makes it possible to compare material across different groups.

Currently, it is generally accepted that for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the “sociometric constraint” should be chosen within 4-5 choices. A significant difference in the second version of the sociometric procedure is that the sociometric constant (N-1) is preserved only for the system of resulting elections (i.e. from group to participant). For a system of given choices (i.e., to a group from a participant), it is measured by a new value d (sociometric constraint). By introducing the value and it is possible to standardize the external conditions of elections in groups of different sizes. To do this, it is necessary to determine the value of d using the same probability of random selection for all groups. The formula for determining such a probability was proposed at one time by J. Moreno and E. Jennings:

where P is the probability of a random event (A) of sociometric choice; N is the number of group members.

Typically, the value of P(A) is selected within the range of 0.20-0.30. Substituting these values ​​into formula (1) to determine d with a known value N, we obtain the desired number of “sociometric restrictions” in the group chosen for measurements.

The disadvantage of the parametric procedure is the inability to reveal the diversity of relationships in a group. It is possible to identify only the most subjectively significant connections. As a result of this approach, the sociometric structure of the group will reflect only the most typical, “selected” communications. The introduction of a “sociometric limitation” does not allow us to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.

A sociometric procedure may aim to:

a) measuring the degree of cohesion - disunity in the group;

b) identifying “sociometric positions”, i.e. the relative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;

c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.

A sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire is compiled at the final stage of program development. In it, each group member must indicate his attitude towards other group members according to selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, leisure time, playing a game, etc.). The criteria are determined depending on the program of the study: whether relationships are studied in an industrial group, a leisure group, a temporary or stable group.

When conducting a survey without limiting the choices, the sociometric card should have a column after each criterion, the size of which would allow one to give fairly complete answers. In a survey with limited elections, to the right of each criterion, as many vertical graphs are drawn on the card as the number of elections we expect to allow in this group. Determining the number of elections for groups of different sizes, with a predetermined value of P(A) in the range of 0.14-0.25, can be done using a special table (see table “Values ​​of limitation of sociometric elections”).

When the sociometric cards are filled out and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. The simplest methods of quantitative processing are tabular, graphical and indexological.

sociometry) Moreno described a number of ways to collect data on interpersonal relationships in groups. One such approach, called S., attracted much attention from psychologists and educators because it provided a simple method for measuring interpersonal attraction among group members. This method has been widely used in the study of social life. the structure of play, work and study groups, and also proved useful in assessing the interpersonal attractiveness of individuals. Sociometric data can be described in terms of the number of choices (or rejections) received by an individual group member. They can also act as the basis for constructing a “sociogram,” which is a “map” of the choices made in response to the question posed. C. can be used to study factors associated with group morality, and sociometric methods can be used in any study that examines interpersonal evaluations, attitudes, beliefs, or impressions occurring in group settings. Variables that have been studied using the sociometric method include leadership, integrity, aggressiveness, prestige, and personal adjustment. See also Ingroups/Outgroups, Interpersonal Perception G. K. Lindgren

SOCIOMETRY

microsociology) - the science of society created by J. Moreno, the psychological theory of society and at the same time - an experimental method, a socio-psychological test that provides the study and regulation of relationships between people, used to assess interpersonal emotional connections in a group.

Nowadays it is understood primarily as a branch of sociology, social psychology and group psychotherapy, aimed at studying and harmonizing interpersonal relationships in small groups using various quantitative and instrumental methods.

The basis of theoretical sociometry is the desire to explain all aspects of social life - economic, political - by the state of emotional relationships between people, their likes and dislikes towards each other. Moreno and his followers came to the conclusion that all the problems of modern society, regardless of its class structure, could be solved by rearranging people according to their emotional preferences - so that the "sociometric" revolution would harmonize social relations, which are systems of mutual preference or aversion of people.

One of the central concepts of this theory is the body, a term meaning the simplest unit of feeling transmitted from one individual to another, which determines the number and success of interpersonal relationships into which they enter. As a result of the sociometric procedure, a sociometric matrix and sociogram are compiled, and sociometric coefficients of group cohesion, understood as a communicative community, are calculated.

Sociometry is characterized by the active use of questionnaires, interviews, testing, indexing, the use of sociomatrices and sociograms, various modifications of group discussions, role-playing and business games, psychodrama and sociodrama.

Numerous experimental studies conducted within the framework of the concept of mediating the activity of interpersonal relations have shown that sociometry allows one to analyze only the external emotional layer of group activity and does not make it possible to analyze interpersonal relations based on taking into account social factors.

SOCIOMETRY

English sociometry) is a theory and method developed by the Austrian-American. psychiatrist Jacob Moreno (Moreno, 1890-1974), which allows one to empirically identify, schematically (in the form of a sociogram) represent and interpret the structure of interpersonal relationships in a group. Currently, S. is considered as a direction in socio-psychological research that uses sociometric methods (methods, tests). See Sociometric research method (in developmental psychology). (B.M.)

SOCIOMETRY

1. Free meaning is any attempt to measure, quantify, or formalize interpersonal connections. The most developed method is the method of J. Moreno. 2. Special meaning - methods and theory, created largely through the work of Jacob L. Moreno, which are the basis for the most commonly used procedures for measuring social things. Moreno's methods consist primarily of identifying the network of relationships that exist between the various members of a group. The procedure for establishing a set of relationships is a sociometric test, and the final schematic diagram that is constructed from this test is called a sociogram.

Sociometry

A scientific method that can be used to quantify relationships within a group. This method allows you to predict the laws of interpersonal relationships that will operate in specific situations.

Sociometry

lat. societas - society + Greek. metreo - measure] - a psychological theory of society developed by J. Moreno and at the same time a socio-psychological test used to assess interpersonal emotional connections in a group. The basis of theoretical socialism is the desire to explain all aspects of social life—economic, political—by the state of emotional relationships between people, their likes and dislikes towards each other. J. Moreno and his followers came to the conclusion that all the problems of modern society, regardless of its class structure, can be solved by rearranging people in accordance with their emotional preferences, so that the "sociometric" revolution allows the harmonization of social relations, which are, in their opinion, systems of mutual preference or aversion between people. One of the central concepts of this theory is “body” - a term denoting the simplest unit of feeling transmitted from one individual to another, which determines the number and success of interpersonal relationships into which they enter. As a result of the sociometric procedure, a sociometric matrix and sociogram are compiled, and sociometric coefficients of group cohesion are calculated. Numerous experimental studies conducted within the framework of the concept of activity-based mediation of interpersonal relationships have shown that S. allows one to analyze only the external emotional layer of group activity and does not make it possible to analyze people’s interpersonal relationships based on taking into account deep social factors. I.V. Porotova

SOCIOMETRY

from lat. societas - society and Greek. metreo measure) is a standardized test method for measuring interpersonal relationships in small groups. S, being one of the forms of group questioning, makes it possible to diagnose and predict changes in the structure of individual relationships in a team, and makes it possible to take a quantitative approach to the study of the phenomena of interpersonal communication. The essence of the sociometric approach is that with the help of subjective assessments of the activities of other members of the team or elections based on certain characteristics, both the appearance of individuals in the team and the appearance of the entire team are determined. The most common are two main options for sociometric surveys: 1) election method - each person chooses another person for some joint activity, based on likes or dislikes for this person; 2) assessment method - each person evaluates or characterizes other members of the group. Both of these methods allow one to explore the informal structure of a group. They make it possible to obtain the structure of relationships in the group at the time of the study: to reveal existing groups, to determine the degree of authority of all group members, to identify persons who introduce elements of discord, hostility, etc. into the sphere of communication. Identification of these issues allows us to build educational work in a certain way with the goal increasing the effectiveness of the group, but this work must be carried out very delicately and carefully; otherwise you may get a negative effect. The results of the sociometric survey are entered into a special table - a sociomatrix and processed using special mathematical methods, on the basis of which a graphical representation of relationships in the group is constructed - a sociogram. In engineering psychology, the S. method in combination with other methods (homeostat, cybernometer, etc.) is used to study relationships in operator groups (crews, crews, teams), in particular to determine the type of communicative behavior of individual operators, analyze the psychological compatibility of the group, etc. .

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Sociometric technique, developed J. Moreno, is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, one can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities, and judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

Sociometric procedure may have purpose:
a) measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in the group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions,” i.e., the relative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.

The use of sociometry makes it possible to measure the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team that arises due to the mutual hostility of some group members. The sociometric technique is carried out using a group method; its implementation does not require much time (up to 15 minutes).

There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey.

Group members are asked to answer questions that make it possible to discover their likes and dislikes for leaders and group members whom the group does not accept. The researcher reads out two questions: a) and b) and gives the test subjects the following instructions: “Write on the pieces of paper under the number 1 the name of the group member whom you would choose first, under the number 2 - who would you choose if there was no first, under the number 3 - who would you choose if there were no first and second.” Then the researcher reads out a question about personal relationships and also gives instructions.

Sample questions for studying business relationships.

1. a) which of your comrades from the group would you ask, if necessary, to help you prepare for classes (first, second, third)?
b) which of your comrades from the group would you like to ask, if necessary, to provide you with help in preparing for classes?

2. a) with whom would you go on a long trip?
b) Which member of your group would you not take on a trip?

3. a) which of the group members will better perform the functions of a leader (headman, trade union leader, etc.)?
b) which of the group members will find it difficult to fulfill the responsibilities of a leader?

Examples of questions for studying personal relationships.(Task: choose one of three options.)

1. a) Who in your group would you turn to for advice in a difficult life situation?
b) with whom from the group would you like to consult about anything?

2. a) if all the members of your group lived in a dormitory, which of them would you like to live in the same room with?
b) if your entire group were reorganized, which of its members would you not want to keep in your group?

3. a) who from the group would you invite to your birthday?
b) who from the group would you not like to see at your birthday?

The answers received are processed mathematically and presented in the form of a table - a sociomatrix.

Sociomatrix (table). First, you should build a simple sociomatrix. An example is given in the table (see below).

The election results are distributed across the matrix using symbols. The results tables are filled out first, separately for business and personal relationships.

The surnames of all members of the group being studied are written down vertically behind the numbers; horizontally - only their number. At the corresponding horizontal intersections, the numbers +1, +2, +3 indicate those whom each subject chose in the first, second, third place, and the numbers -1, -2, -3 - those whom the test subject does not choose in the first, second and third stage.

Mutual positive or negative choices are circled in the table (regardless of the order of choice). After the positive and negative elections are entered into the table, it is necessary to calculate vertically the algebraic sum of all elections received by each member of the group (sum of elections). Then you need to calculate the sum of points for each member of the group, taking into account that the choice in the first place is equal to +3 points (-3), in the second - +2 (-2), in the third - +1 (-1). After this, the total algebraic sum is calculated, which determines the status in the group.

Leader in the group is the one who scored the highest amount of points.
Preferred group members - who also scored a large number of points, but less than the leader.
Neglected group members - those who scored the minimum number of points (1-2).
Isolated- received only negative elections.
By the number of negative choices, you can also determine who arouses the greatest antipathy.

Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is constructed - a map of sociometric choices.

Sociogram- a graphic representation of the test subjects’ reaction to each other when answering the sociometric criterion. A sociogram allows you to make a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on a certain plane (“shield”) using special signs (Fig. below). It gives a clear idea of ​​the intra-group differentiation of group members based on their status (popularity). An example of a sociogram (map of group differentiation) proposed by Y. Kolominsky, see below.

The sociogram consists of several circles, usually equal to the number of elections. The leaders are placed in the center of the sociogram, and the remaining members of the group are located in the next circles, as the number of elections they receive decreases.

The sociogram technique is a significant addition to the tabular approach in the analysis of sociometric material, because it allows for a deeper qualitative description and visual representation of group phenomena.
Sociogram analysis consists of finding the central, most influential members, then mutual pairs and groupings. Groups are made up of interconnected individuals who seek to choose each other. Most often in sociometric measurements there are positive groups of 2, 3 members, less often of 4 or more members.
The data presented on sociograms are often supplemented with numerical indicators—indices—to obtain more detailed information about a person’s position in the system of intragroup relations. The most famous of them is the index of group cohesion, which characterizes the system of group relations as a whole. Its formula is as follows:

Based on the data obtained, it is necessary to describe the results of the study and give recommendations for improving the psychological climate in the classroom.

Sociometric measurement method or Sociometry used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, you can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities, judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups. The founder of sociometry is the famous American psychiatrist and social psychologist Jacob Moreno.

The method of sociometric measurements allows you to obtain information about:

• socio-psychological relations in the group;
• the status of people in the group;
• psychological compatibility and cohesion in the group.

In general, the task of sociometry is to study the unofficial structural aspect of a social group and the psychological atmosphere prevailing in it.

Theoretical basis

The term "sociometry" arose at the end of the 19th century. in connection with the description of possible ways to measure the social influence of some groups of people on others. The theoretical and ideological justification for sociometry as a method of cognition and measurement of social phenomena was given by J. (J. L. Moreno). First, sociometry is a general theory of social groups; secondly, sociometry means any measurement of all social relations; thirdly, sociometry is the mathematical study of the psychological properties of the population, experimental techniques and results obtained by applying quantitative and qualitative methods. The object of sociometric theory is actually existing small social groups that have sufficient experience of living together in group life. The subject area of ​​sociometry is the emotional relationships of people in groups (likes, dislikes, indifference). Created on the basis of the views of K. Marx, O. Comte and Z. Freud, sociometry is opposed to both behaviorism, which observes only the external behavior of people, and Freudianism, with its emphasis on the internal, deep processes of human behavior. According to Moreno, the emotional relationships of people in groups represent an atomistic structure, the structure of society, which is inaccessible to simple observation and can only be revealed with the help of social microscopy. “Microsociology,” Moreno wrote, actually arose with the advent of my theory of “social microscopy.” In combination with sociometric techniques, it laid the foundation for the theoretical and practical foundations of microsociology.” The study of the "primary atomistic structures of human relations" was considered by Moreno as "the preliminary and necessary basic work for most macrosociological research." One of the central concepts of this theory is the body, a term meaning the simplest unit of feeling transmitted from one individual to another, which determines the number and success of interpersonal relationships in which they enter.

The essence of the “general theory of sociometry” is the assertion that social systems are attractive-repulsive-neutral systems, including not only objective, externally manifested relationships (macrostructure), but also subjective, emotional relationships, often invisible externally (microstructure). The goal of sociometric theory is to formulate the laws of emotional relationships in groups.

Basic provisions of Moreno's theory

• The social atom of society is not a separate individual, but their coexistence;
• Law of Social Gravity: The cohesion of a group is directly proportional to the attraction of the participants to each other;
• Sociological law: the highest forms of collective organization develop from simple forms;
• Sociodynamic Law: Within some groups, human attachments are distributed unevenly.

History of creation

Applied sociometry in the form of a special survey and data processing technique (sociometric test, sociomatrices, sociograms, sociometric indices) was developed in research on the elimination of various conflicts in small groups. It has been widely used among sociologists and social psychologists in many countries around the world. Modern sociological and socio-psychological studies of small groups and primary (contact) groups almost always include sociometry as a main or additional method.

Procedure

The general procedure for conducting a sociometric study consists of the following steps:

1st stage

Determination of goals and objectives, research hypotheses. Selection of research objects.

2nd stage

Development of sociometric criteria.

Sociometric criteria are formed in the form of questions, the answers to which serve as the basis for establishing relationships in the group. Types of criteria:

• formal/informal- Formal criteria are aimed at studying relationships in the leading activity of the group. Informal - study informal relationships.
• double/single- Double - study partnership relationships. Single - study the relationship between leadership and subordinates.
• prognostic- allow you to measure how accurately the picture of relationships is reflected in the consciousness of the individual.
• strong (or significant)/weak (insignificant) - Strong ones identify the deepest, most stable relationships, while weak (insignificant) ones affect superficial relationships.

Criteria requirements

1. Limited quantity (3-4);
2. logical connection between each other;
3. the criteria should be of interest;
4. the meaning of the criteria must be clear to the subjects;
5. the criteria should be formulated as specifically as possible, preferably based on the actual situation.

3rd stage

Choosing the type of sociometric research procedure.

Sociometry can be carried out in two ways:

Nonparametric procedure

When using a nonparametric procedure, subjects are asked to answer questions without limiting the number of choices, i.e. everyone except himself. Thus, according to any of the proposed criteria, one can select (N-1) person - the main constant of sociometry, where N is the number of people in the group.

For a nonparametric procedure, the constant is the same for both the person making the choice and the person receiving the choice.

Advantages of the nonparametric procedure:

• allows you to identify the emotional expansiveness of each group member;
• When using this type of procedure, a cross-section of the entire variety of connections in the group structure is made.

• when manually processing sociometry results, measurements are possible only in small groups (up to 12 people);
• there is a high probability of obtaining a random choice due to the amorphous system of relations of the choosing person with others or due to false answers in order to demonstrate normal loyalty to others and to the experimenter.

Parametric procedure

This procedure was designed to reduce the likelihood of random selection. The essence of the procedure is to limit the number of choices of each participant (usually, for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the “sociometric limit” should be chosen within 4-5 choices). Limit value - d- called sociometric limitation or election limit. By introducing this value, it is possible to standardize the external conditions of elections in groups of different sizes. To do this, it is necessary to determine the value of d using the same probability of random selection for all groups. The formula for determining such a probability was proposed at one time by J. Moreno and E. Jennings:

d=(P(A))\times((N-1))

where P(A) is the probability of a random event of sociometric choice, usually selected within the limits;

N is the number of group members.

Advantages of the parametric procedure:

• increases the reliability of the data obtained;
• facilitates statistical processing;
• allows you to standardize selection conditions in groups of different sizes;
• as a result, it becomes possible to compare relationships in different groups.

Disadvantages of the nonparametric procedure:

• does not reveal the full diversity of relationships in the group;
• As a result of this approach, the sociometric structure of the group will reflect only the most typical, “selected” communications. The introduction of a “sociometric limitation” does not allow us to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.

4th stage

Development sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire.

When conducting sociometry, two options are possible:

• Option I- Sociometric research is part of the general survey. In this case, sociometric criteria can be included in the general system as a separate section. However, it is necessary to take into account that subjects must sign their questionnaire, and when choosing people, write their last names.

• Option II- Sociometry is a subject of independent study. Then the order of drawing up the card could be as follows:
  • lists of group members are prepared;
  • Each person in the group is listed under a certain number - this number becomes his code.

Then the card itself is prepared. It should contain the following elements:

• title;
• instructions - the number of required elections and the method of filling out the election column;
• signing the card (legibly).

In it, each group member must indicate his attitude towards other group members according to selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, leisure time, playing, etc.) The criteria are determined depending on the program of this study : whether relationships are studied in an industrial group, a leisure group, a temporary group or a stable group.

Example of a sociometric card

On the card, each group member must indicate his attitude towards other group members according to selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, leisure time, playing, etc.) The criteria are determined depending on the program of this study : whether relationships are studied in an industrial group, a leisure group, a temporary group or a stable group.

When conducting a survey without limiting the choices, the sociometric card should have a column after each criterion, the size of which would allow one to give fairly complete answers. In a survey with limited elections, to the right of each criterion, as many vertical graphs are drawn on the card as the number of elections we expect to allow in this group. Determining the number of elections for groups of different sizes, but with a predetermined value of P(A) in the range of 0.14–0.25, can be done using a special table:

Limitation values ​​of sociometric choices

5th stage

Directly conducting sociometry. It consists of two main components: instructions and meaningful questions. Most often, the psychologist himself gives verbal instructions to all members of the group and reads out the questions, offering to answer them in writing on special forms (they leave a place for the last name, there are question numbers, under each question there are numbers from 1 to 5 in a column) or simply on a sheet of paper paper In another option, the psychologist gives verbal instructions, and then distributes sociometric cards, on which there are brief written instructions, space is left for the last name, all questions are formulated and space is left under each for answers. The advantage of the second option is that respondents see the instructions in front of them constantly, and this reduces (slightly) the number of clarifying questions.

In both cases, verbal instruction serves two very important functions: motivating participants and providing technical explanations.

The motivational part is fundamentally important; it largely determines the openness of survey participants and their desire to answer. The sociometric procedure itself is quite a serious emotional test. Especially for those who occupy extreme status positions: high status and unpopular. You need to write honestly about who you like and who you dislike, knowing that at this moment everyone else is evaluating you too. Moreover, you must sign your statements.

It is possible and necessary to reduce the overall tension of the situation. From this point of view, the following points are important.

• Trusted contact with the group is necessary.
• Instruction delivery style: friendly, informal, calm.
• Gentle formulation of testing goals.

The technical part of the instructions should emphasize the following points:

• everyone fills out their sheet independently, without consulting anyone and without thinking out loud about their choices;
• when filling out, it is necessary to take into account all members of the group, and not just those present at the moment (to make it easier, you can write on the board or give participants complete lists of the group);
• When answering, it is strongly recommended to avoid options such as “everyone”, “anyone”, “nobody”; It is advisable to limit yourself in all matters to the number of choices suggested by the psychologist.

Instruction options

Instructions for schoolchildren“You and I have more than once discussed issues related to relationships in your class, tried to figure out whether he is friendly or not, and if not, then why. In order for our future work to be interesting and useful, it is important for me to understand what your class is like. To do this, I want to use a technique with the clever name “sociometry”. It consists of five questions. You will now receive the test forms and read them. The questions are both simple and complex at the same time. They concern your class, relationships between the guys and each of you personally. To ensure that the work is not in vain, it is very important to take it seriously and be as sincere as possible when answering. Of course, you may not answer the questions, but in this case it will be difficult to continue working on the formation of friendly, friendly relations in the class. And further. The work must be signed. When you read the questions, you will understand that without a signature it loses all meaning. Of course, I can mark the sheets handed out to you or conduct a handwriting examination, but these are unworthy methods.

For my part, I guarantee that your answer sheets will not fall into the hands of anyone: neither your classmates, nor teachers, nor parents. Only I will see them. At a general class meeting, at a council of teachers, we will discuss only general data. If you are interested in my opinion about your personal answers, come to me, let's talk in a calm atmosphere.

Now take the sheets, read each question and answer immediately. It is indecent to consult, discuss out loud, or look at the worksheet of your desk neighbor: this is not an algebra test, but the personal point of view of each of you, which, by the way, you are not obliged to share with your classmates.

So, sign the paper and start answering. It takes about ten minutes to tell you everything. Whoever gets it done first, give me the sheet and immediately leave the class.”

Instructions for students“Dear students. Your group was created recently; your wishes could not be taken into account during its formation, since you did not know each other well enough. In the time that has passed since then, the group has formed. You got to know each other better, some of you became friends, but there was probably some friction. Now we would like to use your experience to reorganize study groups in the future, taking into account your wishes. To this end, you will be asked a series of questions that must be answered truthfully. The composition of newly organized groups will depend on the sincerity of the responses received. Please answer on your own, without consulting each other. Your answers will not be made public."

6th stage

Direct processing and interpretation of results

Processing the results

When the sociometric cards are filled out and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. The simplest methods of quantitative processing are tabular(sociometric matrix), graphic(sociogram) and indexological(sociometric indices).

Sociometric matrix

A sociomatrix is ​​a matrix of connections with the help of which intra-collective relationships are analyzed. The information obtained during the survey is entered into the sociomatrix in the form of numerical values ​​and symbols.

Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationships in the group. Summary sociomatrices can be constructed that give a picture of elections based on several criteria, as well as sociomatrices based on data from intergroup elections.

The main advantage of the sociomatrix is ​​the ability to present elections in numerical form, which in turn allows you to rank the order of influences in the group. Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is constructed - a map of sociometric elections (sociometric map), and sociometric indices are calculated.

Sociogram

A sociogram is a schematic representation of the reaction of subjects to each other when answering a sociometric criterion. A sociogram allows for a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on a certain plane (“shield”) using special signs.

There are two types of sociograms:

• group
• individual

The first depict a picture of relationships in the group as a whole, the second - the system of relationships that exist between the individual of interest to the researcher and the rest of the members of his group.

Group sociograms in turn can be represented as:

• conventional sociogram - the individuals who make up the group are depicted as circles connected by arrows, symbolizing sociometric choices or deviations.
• “target sociograms” - is a system of concentric circles, the number of which is equal to the maximum number of choices received in the group. All group members are placed on circles according to the number of choices received. The entire target sociogram is divided into sectors according to the socio-demographic characteristics of the group (gender, age, etc.).

Individual sociograms used for a more visual representation of the position of individuals in a group, which depict an individual in the totality of all his connections with other members of the group.

Sociometric indices

There are two types of sociometric indices:

• personal sociometric indices;
• group sociometric indices.

The first characterize the individual socio-psychological properties of a person in the role of a member of a group. The latter provide numerical characteristics of the holistic sociometric configuration of choices in the group. They describe the properties of group communication structures.

The main personal sociometric indices are:

• index of sociometric status of the i-member;
• j-member emotional expansiveness index;
• volume index of the intensity and concentration of the interaction of the ij-term.

The characters i and j represent the same group member, but in different roles:

• i – object of choice;
• j – subject of choice;
• ij – combination of roles.

Among the group sociometric indices, the most important are:

• group emotional expansiveness index;
• index of psychological reciprocity in the group (group cohesion);

Interpretation of results

Interpretation of sociometric data is carried out by analyzing the data obtained during processing: sociomatrix, sociograms, sociometric indices.

A comprehensive analysis of an individual’s status in a group can also be obtained using six indices that assess the number of: 1) choices made; 2) the elections received; 3) mutual elections; 4) received deviations; 5) deviations made; 6) mutual deviations.

By assigning a “+” sign to each indicator (if it is above the group average) or “–” (if it is below the group average), one can obtain a coded sociometric profile of the individual. For example, a profile like “+, +, +, –, +, –” will indicate that this individual rejects many in the group, but this circumstance does not affect his popularity. For each group member, what matters is not so much the number of choices, but the satisfaction (Ksd) with their position in the group:

K ud = number of mutual choices/number of choices made by a given person

So, if an individual wants to communicate with three specific people, and none of these three wants to communicate with this person, then K ud = 0/ 3 = 0.

The satisfaction coefficient can be equal to 0, and the status (the number of choices received) can be equal, for example, to 3 for the same person - this situation indicates that the person does not interact with those with whom he would like. As a result of a sociometric experiment, the leader receives information not only about the personal position of each group member in the system of interpersonal relationships, but also a generalized picture of the state of this system. It is characterized by a special diagnostic indicator – the level of well-being of relationships (LWL). The BLV of a group can be high if there are more “stars” and “preferred” members than “neglected” and “isolated” members of the group. The average level of well-being of the group is fixed in the case of an approximate equality (“stars” + “preferred”) = (“neglected” + “isolated” + “rejected”). Low BLV is observed when there is a predominance of people with low status in the group. An important diagnostic indicator is the “isolation index” – the percentage of people deprived of choices in a group.

Stimulus material

Options for sociometric criteria (Questions)

Literature

1. Moreno D.L. Sociometry. M., 1958.
2. Moreno, Ya. L. Sociometry: Experimental method and the science of society / Transl. from English A. Bokovikova. - M.: Academic Project, 2001.
3. Volkov I.P. Sociometric methods in socio-psychological research. L., 1970
4. Fundamentals of Psychology: Workshop / Ed.-comp. L.D. Stolyarenko. - Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 2001.
5. R.A. Zolotovitsky. Sociometry Ya.L. Moreno: measure of communication // Sociological studies. 2002. No. 4. P. 103-113.